Electrochemical hydroxide systems and methods using metal oxidation

ABSTRACT

There are provided methods and systems for an electrochemical cell including an anode and a cathode where the anode is contacted with a metal ion that converts the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state. The metal ion in the higher oxidation state is reacted with hydrogen gas, an unsaturated hydrocarbon, and/or a saturated hydrocarbon to form products.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 13/474,598, filed May 17, 2012, which claims priority to U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 61/488,079, filed May 19, 2011; U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 61/499,499, filed Jun. 21, 2011; U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 61/515,474, filed Aug. 5, 2011; U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 61/546,461, filed Oct. 12, 2011; U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 61/552,701, filed Oct. 28, 2011; U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 61/597,404, filed Feb. 10, 2012; andU.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/617,390, filed Mar. 29, 2012,all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties inthe present disclosure.

BACKGROUND

In many chemical processes, caustic soda may be required to achieve achemical reaction, e.g., to neutralize an acid, or buffer pH of asolution, or precipitate an insoluble hydroxide from a solution. Onemethod by which the caustic soda may be produced is by anelectrochemical system. In producing the caustic soda electrochemically,such as via chlor-alkali process, a large amount of energy, salt, andwater may be used.

Polyvinyl chloride, commonly known as PVC, may be the third-mostwidely-produced plastic, after polyethylene and polypropylene. PVC iswidely used in construction because it is durable, cheap, and easilyworked. PVC may be made by polymerization of vinyl chloride monomerwhich in turn may be made from ethylene dichloride. Ethylene dichloridemay be made by direct chlorination of ethylene using chlorine gas madefrom the chlor-alkali process.

The production of chlorine and caustic soda by electrolysis of aqueoussolutions of sodium chloride or brine is one of the electrochemicalprocesses demanding high-energy consumption. The total energyrequirement is for instance about 2% in the USA and about 1% in Japan ofthe gross electric power generated, to maintain this process by thechlor-alkali industry. The high energy consumption may be related tohigh carbon dioxide emission owing to burning of fossil fuels.Therefore, reduction in the electrical power demand needs to beaddressed to curtail environment pollution and global warming.

SUMMARY

In one aspect, there is provided a method, comprising contacting ananode with an anode electrolyte wherein the anode electrolyte comprisesmetal ion; oxidizing the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to ahigher oxidation state at the anode; contacting a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte; reacting an unsaturated hydrocarbon or a saturatedhydrocarbon with the anode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in thehigher oxidation state, in an aqueous medium to form one or more organiccompounds comprising halogenated hydrocarbon and metal ion in the loweroxidation state in the aqueous medium, and separating the one or moreorganic compounds from the aqueous medium comprising metal ion in thelower oxidation state.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect, the method furthercomprises forming an alkali, water, or hydrogen gas at the cathode. Insome embodiments of the aforementioned aspect, the method furthercomprises forming an alkali at the cathode. In some embodiments of theaforementioned aspect, the method further comprises forming hydrogen gasat the cathode. In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect, themethod further comprises forming water at the cathode. In someembodiments of the aforementioned aspect, the cathode is an oxygendepolarizing cathode that reduces oxygen and water to hydroxide ions. Insome embodiments of the aforementioned aspect, the cathode is a hydrogengas producing cathode that reduces water to hydrogen gas and hydroxideions. In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect, the cathode is ahydrogen gas producing cathode that reduces hydrochloric acid tohydrogen gas. In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect, thecathode is an oxygen depolarizing cathode that reacts with hydrochloricacid and oxygen gas to form water.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, themethod further comprises recirculating the aqueous medium comprisingmetal ion in the lower oxidation state back to the anode electrolyte. Insome embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, theaqueous medium that is recirculated back to the anode electrolytecomprises less than 100 ppm or less than 50 ppm or less than 10 ppm orless than 1 ppm of the organic compound(s).

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, theaqueous medium comprises between 5-95 wt % water, or between 5-90 wt %water, or between 5-99 wt % water.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, themetal ion includes, but not limited to, iron, chromium, copper, tin,silver, cobalt, uranium, lead, mercury, vanadium, bismuth, titanium,ruthenium, osmium, europium, zinc, cadmium, gold, nickel, palladium,platinum, rhodium, iridium, manganese, technetium, rhenium, molybdenum,tungsten, niobium, tantalum, zirconium, hafnium, and combinationthereof. In some embodiments, the metal ion includes, but not limitedto, iron, chromium, copper, and tin. In some embodiments, the metal ionis copper. In some embodiments, the lower oxidation state of the metalion is 1+, 2+, 3+, 4+, or 5+. In some embodiments, the higher oxidationstate of the metal ion is 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, or 6+. In some embodiments,the metal ion is copper that is converted from Cu⁺ to Cu²⁺, the metalion is iron that is converted from Fe²⁺ to Fe³⁺, the metal ion is tinthat is converted from Sn²⁺ to Sn⁴⁺, the metal ion is chromium that isconverted from Cr²⁺ to Cr³⁺, the metal ion is platinum that is convertedfrom Pt²⁺ to Pt⁴⁺, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, no gasis used or formed at the anode.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, themethod further comprises adding a ligand to the anode electrolytewherein the ligand interacts with the metal ion.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, themethod further comprises reacting an unsaturated hydrocarbon or asaturated hydrocarbon with the anode electrolyte comprising the metalion in the higher oxidation state and the ligand, wherein the reactionis in an aqueous medium.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, thereaction of the unsaturated hydrocarbon or the saturated hydrocarbonwith the anode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in the higheroxidation state is halogenation or sulfonation using the metal halide orthe metal sulfate in the higher oxidation state resulting in ahalohydrocarbon or a sulfohydrocarbon, respectively, and the metalhalide or the metal sulfate in the lower oxidation state. In someembodiments, the metal halide or the metal sulfate in the loweroxidation state is re-circulated back to the anode electrolyte.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, theanode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in the higher oxidation statefurther comprises the metal ion in the lower oxidation state.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, theunsaturated hydrocarbon is compound of formula I resulting in compoundof formula II after halogenation:

wherein, n is 2-10; m is 0-5; and q is 1-5;

R is independently selected from hydrogen, halogen, —COOR′, —OH, and—NR′(R″), where R′ and R″ are independently selected from hydrogen,alkyl, and substituted alkyl; and

X is a halogen selected from chloro, bromo, and iodo.

In some embodiments, m is 0; n is 2; q is 2; and X is chloro. In someembodiments, the compound of formula I is ethylene, propylene, orbutylene and the compound of formula II is ethylene dichloride,propylene dichloride or 1,4-dichlorobutane, respectively. In someembodiments, the method further comprises forming vinyl chloride monomerfrom the ethylene dichloride and forming poly(vinyl chloride) from thevinyl chloride monomer.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, thesaturated hydrocarbon is compound of formula III resulting in compoundof formula IV after halogenation:

wherein, n is 2-10; k is 0-5; and s is 1-5;

R is independently selected from hydrogen, halogen, —COOR′, —OH, and—NR′(R″), where R′ and R″ are independently selected from hydrogen,alkyl, and substituted alkyl; and

X is a halogen selected from chloro, bromo, and iodo.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula III is methane, ethane, orpropane.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, theone or more organic compounds comprise ethylene dichloride,chloroethanol, dichloroacetaldehyde, trichloroacetaldehyde, orcombinations thereof.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, thestep of separating the one or more organic compounds from the aqueousmedium comprising metal ion in the lower oxidation state comprises usingan adsorbent.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, theadsorbent is selected from activated charcoal, alumina, activatedsilica, polymer, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments of theaforementioned aspect and embodiments, the adsorbent is a polyolefinselected from polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene,polymethylpentene, polybutene-1, polyolefin elastomers, polyisobutylene,ethylene propylene rubber, polymethylacrylate, poly(methylmethacrylate),poly(isobutylmethacrylate), and combinations thereof. In someembodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, the adsorbentis activated charcoal. In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspectand embodiments, the adsorbent is polystyrene.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, theadsorbent adsorbs more than 95% w/w organic compounds.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, themethod further comprises regenerating the adsorbent using techniqueselected from purging with an inert fluid, change of chemicalconditions, increase in temperature, reduction in partial pressure,reduction in the concentration, purging with inert gas or steam, andcombinations thereof. In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspectand embodiments, the method further comprises regenerating the adsorbentby purging with an inert fluid. In some embodiments of theaforementioned aspect and embodiments, the method further comprisesregenerating the adsorbent by purging with inert gas or steam at hightemperature.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, themethod further comprises providing turbulence in the anode electrolyteto improve mass transfer at the anode. The method to provide turbulencehas been described herein.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, themethod further comprises contacting a diffusion enhancing anode such as,but not limited to, a porous anode with the anode electrolyte. Thediffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to, the porous anodehas been described herein.

In one aspect, there is provided a system, comprising an anode incontact with an anode electrolyte comprising metal ion wherein the anodeis configured to oxidize the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to ahigher oxidation state; a cathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte;a reactor operably connected to the anode chamber and configured toreact the anode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in the higheroxidation state with an unsaturated hydrocarbon or saturated hydrocarbonin an aqueous medium to form one or more organic compounds comprisinghalogenated hydrocarbon and metal ion in the lower oxidation state inthe aqueous medium, and a separator operably connected to the reactorand the anode and configured to separate the one or more organiccompounds from the aqueous medium comprising metal ion in the loweroxidation state.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, theseparator further comprises a recirculating system operably connected tothe anode to recirculate the aqueous medium comprising metal ion in thelower oxidation state to the anode electrolyte.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, theanode is a diffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to, aporous anode. The porous anode may be flat or corrugated, as describedherein.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, theseparator comprises an adsorbent selected from activated charcoal,alumina, activated silica, polymer, and combinations thereof.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, thesystem further comprises a ligand in the anode electrolyte wherein theligand is configured to interact with the metal ion.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned system aspect and embodiments,the cathode is a gas-diffusion cathode configured to react oxygen gasand water to form hydroxide ions. In some embodiments of theaforementioned system aspect and embodiments, the cathode is a hydrogengas producing cathode configured to form hydrogen gas and hydroxide ionsby reducing water. In some embodiments of the aforementioned systemaspect and embodiments, the cathode is a hydrogen gas producing cathodeconfigured to reduce an acid, such as, hydrochloric acid to hydrogengas. In some embodiments of the aforementioned system aspect andembodiments, the cathode is a gas-diffusion cathode configured to reacthydrochloric acid and oxygen to form water.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned system aspect and embodiments,the anode is configured to not form a gas.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, thesystem further comprises a precipitator configured to contact thecathode electrolyte with divalent cations to form a carbonate and/orbicarbonate product.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, themetal ion is copper. In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspectand embodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon is ethylene. In someembodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, the one ormore organic compounds are selected from ethylene dichloride,chloroethanol, dichloroacetaldehyde, trichloroacetaldehyde, andcombinations thereof.

In some embodiments of the aforementioned aspect and embodiments, theseparator is one or more of packed bed columns comprising polystyrene.

In some embodiments, the treatment of the metal ion in the higheroxidation state with the unsaturated hydrocarbon is inside the anodechamber. In some embodiments, the treatment of the metal ion in thehigher oxidation state with the unsaturated hydrocarbon is outside theanode chamber. In some embodiments, the treatment of the metal ion inthe higher oxidation state with the unsaturated hydrocarbon results in achlorohydrocarbon. In some embodiments, the chlorohydrocarbon isethylene dichloride. In some embodiments, the method further includestreating the Cu²⁺ ions with ethylene to form ethylene dichloride. Insome embodiments, the method further includes treating the ethylenedichloride to form vinyl chloride monomer. In some embodiments, themethod further includes treating the vinyl chloride monomer to form poly(vinyl) chloride.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity inthe appended claims. A better understanding of the features andadvantages of the present invention may be obtained by reference to thefollowing detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments,in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and theaccompanying drawings of which:

FIG. 1A is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 1B is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 2 is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 3A is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 3B is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 4A is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 4B is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 5A is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 5B is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 5C is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 6 is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 7A is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 7B is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 7C is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 8A is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 8B is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 8C is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 9 is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 10A is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 10B is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 11 is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 12 is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 13 is an illustration of an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 14 is an illustrative graph as described in Example 2 herein.

FIG. 15 is an illustrative graph as described in Example 3 herein.

FIG. 16 illustrates few examples of the diffusion enhancing anode suchas, but not limited to, the porous anode, as described herein.

FIG. 17 is an illustrative graph for different adsorbents, as describedin Example 5 herein.

FIG. 18 is an illustrative graph for adsorption and regeneration, asdescribed in Example 5 herein.

FIG. 19 is an illustrative dynamic adsorption column, as described inExample 5 herein.

FIG. 20 is an illustrative graph as described in Example 5 herein.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Disclosed herein are systems and methods that relate to the oxidation ofa metal ion by the anode in the anode chamber where the metal ion isoxidized from the lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state.

As can be appreciated by one ordinarily skilled in the art, the presentelectrochemical system and method can be configured with an alternative,equivalent salt solution, e.g., a potassium chloride solution or sodiumchloride solution or a magnesium chloride solution or sodium sulfatesolution or ammonium chloride solution, to produce an equivalentalkaline solution, e.g., potassium hydroxide and/or potassium carbonateand/or potassium bicarbonate or sodium hydroxide and/or sodium carbonateand/or sodium bicarbonate or magnesium hydroxide and/or magnesiumcarbonate in the cathode electrolyte. Accordingly, to the extent thatsuch equivalents are based on or suggested by the present system andmethod, these equivalents are within the scope of the application.

Before the present invention is described in greater detail, it is to beunderstood that this invention is not limited to particular embodimentsdescribed, as such may, of course, vary. It is also to be understoodthat the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describingparticular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting, sincethe scope of the present invention will be limited only by the appendedclaims.

Where a range of values is provided, it is understood that eachintervening value, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit unlessthe context clearly dictates otherwise, between the upper and lowerlimit of that range and any other stated or intervening value in thatstated range, is encompassed within the invention. The upper and lowerlimits of these smaller ranges may independently be included in thesmaller ranges and are also encompassed within the invention, subject toany specifically excluded limit in the stated range. Where the statedrange includes one or both of the limits, ranges excluding either orboth of those included limits are also included in the invention.

Certain ranges that are presented herein with numerical values may beconstrued as “about” numericals. The “about” is to provide literalsupport for the exact number that it precedes, as well as a number thatis near to or approximately the number that the term precedes. Indetermining whether a number is near to or approximately a specificallyrecited number, the near or approximating unrequited number may be anumber, which, in the context in which it is presented, provides thesubstantial equivalent of the specifically recited number.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used hereinhave the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill inthe art to which this invention belongs. Although any methods andmaterials similar or equivalent to those described herein can also beused in the practice or testing of the present invention, representativeillustrative methods and materials are now described.

All publications and patents cited in this specification are hereinincorporated by reference as if each individual publication or patentwere specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated byreference and are incorporated herein by reference to disclose anddescribe the methods and/or materials in connection with which thepublications are cited. The citation of any publication is for itsdisclosure prior to the filing date and should not be construed as anadmission that the present invention is not entitled to antedate suchpublication by virtue of prior invention. Further, the dates ofpublication provided may be different from the actual publication dateswhich may need to be independently confirmed.

It is noted that, as used herein and in the appended claims, thesingular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural references unless thecontext clearly dictates otherwise. It is further noted that the claimsmay be drafted to exclude any optional element. As such, this statementis intended to serve as antecedent basis for use of such exclusiveterminology as “solely,” “only” and the like in connection with therecitation of claim elements, or use of a “negative” limitation.

As will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reading thisdisclosure, each of the individual embodiments described and illustratedherein has discrete components and features which may be readilyseparated from or combined with the features of any of the other severalembodiments without departing from the scope or spirit of the presentinvention. Any recited method can be carried out in the order of eventsrecited or in any other order which is logically possible.

Compositions, Methods, and Systems

In one aspect, there are provided methods and systems that relate to theoxidation of metal ions from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state in the anode chamber of the electrochemical cell. Themetal ions formed with the higher oxidation state may be used as is orare used for commercial purposes such as, but not limited to, chemicalsynthesis reactions, reduction reactions etc. In one aspect, theelectrochemical cells described herein provide an efficient and lowvoltage system where the metal compound such as metal halide, e.g.,metal chloride or a metal sulfate with the higher oxidation stateproduced by the anode can be used for other purposes, such as, but notlimited to, generation of hydrogen chloride, hydrochloric acid, hydrogenbromide, hydrobromic acid, hydrogen iodide, hydroiodic acid, or sulfuricacid from hydrogen gas and/or generation of halohydrocarbons orsulfohydrocarbons from hydrocarbons.

The “halohydrocarbons” or “halogenated hydrocarbon” as used herein,include halo substituted hydrocarbons where halo may be any number ofhalogens that can be attached to the hydrocarbon based on permissiblevalency. The halogens include fluoro, chloro, bromo, and iodo. Theexamples of halohydrocarbons include chlorohydrocarbons,bromohydrocarbons, and iodohydrocarbons. The chlorohydrocarbons include,but not limited to, monochlorohydrocarbons, dichlorohydrocarbons,trichlorohydrocarbons, etc. For metal halides, such as, but not limitedto, metal bromide and metal iodide, the metal bromide or metal iodidewith the higher oxidation state produced by the anode chamber can beused for other purposes, such as, but not limited to, generation ofhydrogen bromide or hydrogen iodide and/or generation of bromo oriodohydrocarbons, such as, but not limited to, monobromohydrocarbons,dibromohydrocarbons, tribromohydrocarbons, monoiodohydrocarbons,diiodohydrocarbons, triiodohydrocarbons, etc. In some embodiments, themetal ion in the higher oxidation state may be sold as is in thecommercial market.

The “sulfohydrocarbons” as used herein include hydrocarbons substitutedwith one or more of —SO₃H or —OSO₂OH based on permissible valency.

The electrochemical cell of the invention may be any electrochemicalcell where the metal ion in the lower oxidation state is converted tothe metal ion in the higher oxidation state in the anode chamber. Insuch electrochemical cells, cathode reaction may be any reaction thatdoes or does not form an alkali in the cathode chamber. Such cathodeconsumes electrons and carries out any reaction including, but notlimited to, the reaction of water to form hydroxide ions and hydrogengas or reaction of oxygen gas and water to form hydroxide ions orreduction of protons from an acid such as hydrochloric acid to formhydrogen gas or reaction of protons from hydrochloric acid and oxygengas to form water.

In some embodiments, the electrochemical cells may include production ofan alkali in the cathode chamber of the cell. The alkali generated inthe cathode chamber may be used as is for commercial purposes or may betreated with divalent cations to form divalent cation containingcarbonates/bicarbonates. In some embodiments, the alkali generated inthe cathode chamber may be used to sequester or capture carbon dioxide.The carbon dioxide may be present in flue gas emitted by variousindustrial plants. The carbon dioxide may be sequestered in the form ofcarbonate and/or bicarbonate products. In some embodiments, the metalcompound with metal in the higher oxidation state may be withdrawn fromthe anode chamber and is used for any commercial process that is knownto skilled artisan in the art. Therefore, both the anode electrolyte aswell as the cathode electrolyte can be used for generating products thatmay be used for commercial purposes thereby providing a more economical,efficient, and less energy intensive process.

In some embodiments, the metal compound produced by the anode chambermay be used as is or may be purified before reacting with hydrogen gas,unsaturated hydrocarbon, or saturated hydrocarbon for the generation ofhydrogen chloride, hydrochloric acid, hydrogen bromide, hydrobromicacid, hydrogen iodide, or hydroiodic acid, sulfuric acid, and/orhalohydrocarbon or sulfohydrocarbon, respectively. In some embodiments,the metal compound may be used on-site where hydrogen gas is generatedand/or in some embodiments, the metal compound withdrawn from the anodechamber may be transferred to a site where hydrogen gas is generated andhydrogen chloride, hydrochloric acid, hydrogen bromide, hydrobromicacid, hydrogen iodide, or hydroiodic acid are formed from it. In someembodiments, the metal compound may be formed in the electrochemicalsystem and used on-site where an unsaturated hydrocarbon such as, butnot limited to, ethylene gas is generated or transferred to and/or insome embodiments, the metal compound withdrawn from the anode chambermay be transferred to a site where an unsaturated hydrocarbon such as,but not limited to, ethylene gas is generated or transferred to andhalohydrocarbon, e.g., chlorohydrocarbon is formed from it. In someembodiments, the ethylene gas generating facility is integrated with theelectrochemical system of the invention to simultaneously produce themetal compound in the higher oxidation state and the ethylene gas andtreat them with each other to form a product, such as ethylenedichloride (EDC). The ethylene dichloride may also be known as1,2-dichloroethane, dichloroethane, 1,2-ethylene dichloride, glycoldichloride, freon 150, borer sol, brocide, destruxol borer-sol,dichlor-mulsion, dutch oil, or granosan. In some embodiments, theelectrochemical system of the invention is integrated with vinylchloride monomer (VCM) production facility or polyvinylchloride (PVC)production facility such that the EDC formed via the systems and methodsof the invention is used in VCM and/or PVC production.

The electrochemical systems and methods described herein provide one ormore advantages over conventional electrochemical systems known in theart, including, but not limited to, no requirement of gas diffusionanode; higher cell efficiency; lower voltages; platinum free anode;sequestration of carbon dioxide; green and environment friendlychemicals; and/or formation of various commercially viable products.

The systems and methods of the invention provide an electrochemical cellthat produces various products, such as, but not limited to, metal saltsformed at the anode, the metal salts used to form various otherchemicals, alkali formed at the cathode, alkali used to form variousother products, and/or hydrogen gas formed at the cathode. All of suchproducts have been defined herein and may be called “green chemicals”since such chemicals are formed using the electrochemical cell that runsat low voltage or energy and high efficiency. The low voltage or lessenergy intensive process described herein would lead to lesser emissionof carbon dioxide as compared to conventional methods of making similarchemicals or products. In some embodiments, the chemicals or productsare formed by the capture of carbon dioxide from flue gas in the alkaligenerated at the cathode, such as, but not limited to, carbonate andbicarbonate products. Such carbonate and bicarbonate products are “greenchemicals” as they reduce the pollution and provide cleaner environment.

Metal

The “metal ion” or “metal” as used herein, includes any metal ioncapable of being converted from lower oxidation state to higheroxidation state. Examples of metal ions include, but not limited to,iron, chromium, copper, tin, silver, cobalt, uranium, lead, mercury,vanadium, bismuth, titanium, ruthenium, osmium, europium, zinc, cadmium,gold, nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium, iridium, manganese,technetium, rhenium, molybdenum, tungsten, niobium, tantalum, zirconium,hafnium, and combination thereof. In some embodiments, the metal ionsinclude, but not limited to, iron, copper, tin, chromium, or combinationthereof. In some embodiments, the metal ion is copper. In someembodiments, the metal ion is tin. In some embodiments, the metal ion isiron. In some embodiments, the metal ion is chromium. In someembodiments, the metal ion is platinum. The “oxidation state” as usedherein, includes degree of oxidation of an atom in a substance. Forexample, in some embodiments, the oxidation state is the net charge onthe ion. Some examples of the reaction of the metal ions at the anodeare as shown in Table I below (SHE is standard hydrogen electrode). Thetheoretical values of the anode potential are also shown. It is to beunderstood that some variation from these voltages may occur dependingon conditions, pH, concentrations of the electrolytes, etc and suchvariations are well within the scope of the invention.

TABLE I Anode Potential Anode Reaction (V vs. SHE) Ag⁺ → Ag²⁺ + e⁻ −1.98Co²⁺ → Co³⁺ + e⁻ −1.82 Pb²⁺ → Pb⁴⁺ + 2e⁻ −1.69 Ce³⁺ → Ce⁴⁺ + e⁻ −1.442Cr³⁺ + 7H₂O → Cr₂O₇ ²⁻ + 14H⁺ + 6e⁻ −1.33 Tl⁺ → Tl³⁺ + 2e⁻ −1.25 Hg₂ ²⁺→ 2Hg²⁺ + 2e⁻ −0.91 Fe²⁺ → Fe³⁺ + e⁻ −0.77 V³⁺ + H₂O → VO²⁺ + 2H⁺ + e⁻−0.34 U⁴⁺ + 2H₂O → UO²⁺ + 4H⁻ + e⁻ −0.27 Bi⁺ → Bi³⁺ + 2e⁻ −0.20 Ti³⁺ +H₂O → TiO²⁺ + 2H⁺ + e⁻ −0.19 Cu⁺ → Cu²⁺ + e⁻ −0.16 UO₂ ⁺ → UO₂ ²⁺ + e⁻−0.16 Sn²⁺ → Sn⁴⁺ + 2e⁻ −0.15 Ru(NH₃)₆ ²⁺ → Ru(NH₃)₆ ³⁺ + e⁻ −0.10 V²⁺ →V³⁺ + e⁻ +0.26 Eu²⁺ → Eu³⁺ + e⁻ +0.35 Cr²⁺ → Cr³⁺ + e⁻ +0.42 U³⁺ → U⁴⁺ +e⁻ +0.52

The metal ion may be present as a compound of the metal or an alloy ofthe metal or combination thereof. In some embodiments, the anionattached to the metal is same as the anion of the electrolyte. Forexample, for sodium or potassium chloride used as an electrolyte, ametal chloride, such as, but not limited to, iron chloride, copperchloride, tin chloride, chromium chloride etc. is used as the metalcompound. For example, for sodium or potassium sulfate used as anelectrolyte, a metal sulfate, such as, but not limited to, iron sulfate,copper sulfate, tin sulfate, chromium sulfate etc. is used as the metalcompound. For example, for sodium or potassium bromide used as anelectrolyte, a metal bromide, such as, but not limited to, iron bromide,copper bromide, tin bromide etc. is used as the metal compound.

In some embodiments, the anion of the electrolyte may be partially orfully different from the anion of the metal. For example, in someembodiments, the anion of the electrolyte may be a sulfate whereas theanion of the metal may be a chloride. In such embodiments, it may bedesirable to have less concentration of the chloride ions in theelectrochemical cell. For example, in some embodiments, the higherconcentration of chloride ions in the anode electrolyte, due to chlorideof the electrolyte and the chloride of the metal, may result inundesirable ionic species in the anode electrolyte. This may be avoidedby utilizing an electrolyte that contains ions other than chloride. Insome embodiments, the anode electrolyte may be a combination of ionssimilar to the metal anion and anions different from the metal ion. Forexample, the anode electrolyte may be a mix of sulfate ions as well aschloride ions when the metal anion is chloride. In such embodiments, itmay be desirable to have sufficient concentration of chloride ions inthe electrolyte to dissolve the metal salt but not high enough to causeundesirable ionic speciation.

In some embodiments, the electrolyte and/or the metal compound arechosen based on the desired end product. For example, if HCl is desiredfrom the reaction between the hydrogen gas and the metal compound thenmetal chloride is used as the metal compound and the sodium chloride isused as an electrolyte. For example, if a brominated hydrocarbon isdesired from the reaction between the metal compound and thehydrocarbon, then a metal bromide is used as the metal compound and thesodium or potassium bromide is used as the electrolyte.

In some embodiments, the metal ions used in the electrochemical systemsdescribed herein, may be chosen based on the solubility of the metal inthe anode electrolyte and/or cell voltages desired for the metaloxidation from the lower oxidation state to the higher oxidation state.For example, the voltage required to oxidize Cr²⁺ to Cr³⁺ may be lowerthan that required for Sn²⁺ to Sn⁴⁺, however, the amount of HCl formedby the reaction of the hydrogen gas with the Cr³⁺ may be lower than theHCl formed with Sn⁴⁺ owing to two chlorine atoms obtained per tinmolecule. Therefore, in some embodiments, where the lower cell voltagesmay be desired, the metal ion oxidation that results in lower cellvoltage may be used, such as, but not limited to Cr²⁺. For example, forthe reactions where carbon dioxide is captured by the alkali produced bythe cathode electrolyte, a lower voltage may be desired. In someembodiments, where a higher amount of the product, such as hydrochloricacid may be desired, the metal ion that results in higher amount of theproduct albeit relatively higher voltages may be used, such as, but notlimited to Sn²⁺. For example, the voltage of the cell may be higher fortin system as compared to the chromium system, however, theconcentration of the acid formed with Sn⁴⁺ may offset the higher voltageof the system. It is to be understood, that the products formed by thesystems and methods described herein, such as the acid,halohydrocarbons, sulfohydrocarbons, carbonate, bicarbonates, etc. arestill “green” chemicals as they are made by less energy intensiveprocesses as compared to energy input required for conventionally knownmethods of making the same products.

In some embodiments, the metal ion in the lower oxidation state and themetal ion in the higher oxidation state are both present in the anodeelectrolyte. In some embodiments, it may be desirable to have the metalion in both the lower oxidation state and the higher oxidation state inthe anode electrolyte. Suitable ratios of the metal ion in the lower andhigher oxidation state in the anode electrolyte have been describedherein. The mixed metal ion in the lower oxidation state with the metalion in the higher oxidation state may assist in lower voltages in theelectrochemical systems and high yield and selectivity in correspondingcatalytic reactions with hydrogen gas or hydrocarbons.

In some embodiments, the metal ion in the anode electrolyte is a mixedmetal ion. For example, the anode electrolyte containing the copper ionin the lower oxidation state and the copper ion in the higher oxidationstate may also contain another metal ion such as, but not limited to,iron. In some embodiments, the presence of a second metal ion in theanode electrolyte may be beneficial in lowering the total energy of theelectrochemical reaction in combination with the catalytic reaction.

Some examples of the metal compounds that may be used in the systems andmethods of the invention include, but are not limited to, copper (II)sulfate, copper (II) nitrate, copper (I) chloride, copper (I) bromide,copper (I) iodide, iron (III) sulfate, iron (III) nitrate, iron (II)chloride, iron (II) bromide, iron (II) iodide, tin (II) sulfate, tin(II) nitrate, tin (II) chloride, tin (II) bromide, tin (II) iodide,chromium (III) sulfate, chromium (III) nitrate, chromium (II) chloride,chromium (II) bromide, chromium (II) iodide, zinc (II) chloride, zinc(II) bromide, etc.

Ligands

In some embodiments, an additive such as a ligand is used in conjunctionwith the metal ion to improve the efficiency of the metal ion oxidationinside the anode chamber and/or improve the catalytic reactions of themetal ion inside/outside the anode chamber such as, but not limited toreactions with hydrogen gas, with unsaturated hydrocarbon, and/or withsaturated hydrocarbon. In some embodiments, the ligand is added alongwith the metal in the anode electrolyte. In some embodiments, the ligandis attached to the metal ion. In some embodiments, the ligand isattached to the metal ion by covalent, ionic and/or coordinate bonds. Insome embodiments, the ligand is attached to the metal ion throughvanderwaal attractions.

Accordingly, in some embodiments, there are provided methods thatinclude contacting an anode with an anode electrolyte; oxidizing a metalion from the lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state at theanode; adding a ligand to the anode electrolyte wherein the ligandinteracts with the metal ion; and contacting a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte. In some embodiments, there are provided methods thatinclude contacting an anode with an anode electrolyte; oxidizing a metalion from the lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state at theanode; adding a ligand to the anode electrolyte wherein the ligandinteracts with the metal ion; and contacting a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte wherein the cathode produces hydroxide ions, water, and/orhydrogen gas. In some embodiments, there are provided methods thatinclude contacting an anode with an anode electrolyte; oxidizing a metalion from the lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state at theanode; adding a ligand to the anode electrolyte wherein the ligandinteracts with the metal ion; contacting a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte wherein the cathode produces hydroxide ions, water, and/orhydrogen gas; and contacting the anode electrolyte containing the ligandand the metal ion in the higher oxidation state with an unsaturatedhydrocarbon, hydrogen gas, saturated hydrocarbon, or combinationthereof.

In some embodiments, there are provided methods that include contactingan anode with an anode electrolyte; oxidizing a metal halide from alower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state at the anode; adding aligand to the metal halide wherein the ligand interacts with the metalion; contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte wherein the cathodeproduces hydroxide ions, water, and/or hydrogen gas; and halogenating anunsaturated and/or saturated hydrocarbon with the metal halide in thehigher oxidation state. In some embodiments, the metal halide is metalchloride and halogenations reaction is chlorination. In someembodiments, such methods contain a hydrogen gas producing cathode. Insome embodiments, such methods contain an oxygen depolarized cathode. Insome embodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon in such methods is asubstituted or an unsubstituted alkene as C_(n)H_(2n) where n is 2-20(or alkyne or formula I as described further herein), e.g., ethylene,propylene, butene etc. In some embodiments, the saturated hydrocarbon insuch methods is a substituted or an unsubstituted alkane asC_(n)H_(2n+2) where n is 2-20 (or formula III as described furtherherein), e.g., methane, ethane, propane, etc. In some embodiments, themetal in such methods is metal chloride such as copper chloride. In someembodiments, such methods result in net energy saving of more than 100kJ/mol or more than 150 kJ/mol or more than 200 kJ/mol or between100-250 kJ/mol or the method results in the voltage savings of more than1V (described below and in FIG. 8C). In some embodiments, theunsaturated hydrocarbon in such methods is C₂-C₅ alkene such as but notlimited to, ethylene, propylene, isobutylene, 2-butene (cis and/ortrans), pentene etc. or C₂-C₄ alkene such as but not limited to,ethylene, propylene, isobutylene, 2-butene (cis and/or trans), etc. Insome embodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon in such methods isethylene and the metal ion in such methods is metal chloride such as,copper chloride. In such methods, halogenations of the ethylene formsEDC. In some embodiments, the saturated hydrocarbon in such methods isethane and the metal ion in such methods is metal chloride such as,platinum chloride or copper chloride. In such methods, halogenation ofethane forms chloroethane or EDC.

In some embodiments, there are provided systems that include an anode incontact with an anode electrolyte wherein the anode is configured tooxidize a metal ion from the lower oxidation state to a higher oxidationstate; a ligand in the anode electrolyte wherein the ligand isconfigured to interact with the metal ion; and a cathode in contact witha cathode electrolyte. In some embodiments, there are provided systemsthat include an anode in contact with an anode electrolyte wherein theanode is configured to oxidize a metal ion from the lower oxidationstate to a higher oxidation state; a ligand in the anode electrolytewherein the ligand is configured to interact with the metal ion; and acathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte wherein the cathode isconfigured to produce hydroxide ions, water, and/or hydrogen gas. Insome embodiments, there are provided systems that include an anode incontact with an anode electrolyte wherein the anode is configured tooxidize a metal ion from the lower oxidation state to a higher oxidationstate; a ligand in the anode electrolyte wherein the ligand isconfigured to interact with the metal ion; and a cathode in contact witha cathode electrolyte wherein the cathode is configured to formhydroxide ions, water, and/or hydrogen gas; and a reactor configured toreact the anode electrolyte containing the ligand and the metal ion inthe higher oxidation state with an unsaturated hydrocarbon, hydrogengas, saturated hydrocarbon, or combination thereof. In some embodiments,such systems contain an oxygen depolarized cathode. In some embodiments,such systems contain a hydrogen gas producing cathode. In someembodiments, such systems result in net energy saving of more than 100kJ/mol or more than 150 kJ/mol or more than 200 kJ/mol or between100-250 kJ/mol or the system results in the voltage savings of more than1V (described below and in FIG. 8C). In some embodiments, theunsaturated hydrocarbon in such systems is C₂-C₅ alkene, such as but notlimited to, ethylene, propylene, isobutylene, 2-butene (cis and/ortrans), pentene etc. or C₂-C₄ alkene, such as but not limited to,ethylene, propylene, isobutylene, 2-butene (cis and/or trans), etc. Insome embodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon in such systems isethylene. In some embodiments, the metal in such systems is metalchloride such as copper chloride. In some embodiments, the unsaturatedhydrocarbon in such systems is ethylene and the metal ion in suchsystems is metal chloride such as, copper chloride. In such systems,halogenations of the ethylene forms EDC. In some embodiments, thesaturated hydrocarbon in such systems is ethane and the metal ion insuch systems is metal chloride such as, platinum chloride, copperchloride, etc. In such systems, halogenation of ethane formschloroethane and/or EDC.

In some embodiments, the ligand results in one or more of the following:enhanced reactivity of the metal ion towards the unsaturatedhydrocarbon, saturated hydrocarbon, or hydrogen gas, enhancedselectivity of the metal ion towards halogenations of the unsaturated orsaturated hydrocarbon, enhanced transfer of the halogen from the metalion to the unsaturated hydrocarbon, saturated hydrocarbon, or thehydrogen gas, reduced redox potential of the electrochemical cell,enhanced solubility of the metal ion in the aqueous medium, reducedmembrane cross-over of the metal ion to the cathode electrolyte in theelectrochemical cell, reduced corrosion of the electrochemical celland/or the reactor, enhanced separation of the metal ion from the acidsolution after reaction with hydrogen gas (such as size exclusionmembranes), enhanced separation of the metal ion from the halogenatedhydrocarbon solution (such as size exclusion membranes), and combinationthereof.

In some embodiments, the attachment of the ligand to the metal ionincreases the size of the metal ion sufficiently higher to prevent itsmigration through the ion exchange membranes in the cell. In someembodiments, the anion exchange membrane in the electrochemical cell maybe used in conjunction with the size exclusion membrane such that themigration of the metal ion attached to the ligand from the anodeelectrolyte to the cathode electrolyte, is prevented. Such membranes aredescribed herein below. In some embodiments, the attachment of theligand to the metal ion increases the solubility of the metal ion in theaqueous medium. In some embodiments, the attachment of the ligand to themetal ion reduces the corrosion of the metals in the electrochemicalcell as well as the reactor. In some embodiments, the attachment of theligand to the metal ion increases the size of the metal ion sufficientlyhigher to facilitate separation of the metal ion from the acid or fromthe halogenated hydrocarbon after the reaction. In some embodiments, thepresence and/or attachment of the ligand to the metal ion may preventformation of various halogenated species of the metal ion in thesolution and favor formation of only the desired species. For example,the presence of the ligand in the copper ion solution may limit theformation of the various halogenated species of the copper ion, such as,but not limited to, [CuCl₃]²⁻ or CuCl₂ ⁰ but favor formation of Cu²⁺/Cu⁺ion. In some embodiments, the presence and/or attachment of the ligandin the metal ion solution reduces the overall voltage of the cell byproviding one or more of the advantages described above.

The “ligand” as used herein includes any ligand capable of enhancing theproperties of the metal ion. In some embodiments, ligands include, butnot limited to, substituted or unsubstituted aliphatic phosphine,substituted or unsubstituted aromatic phosphine, substituted orunsubstituted amino phosphine, substituted or unsubstituted crown ether,substituted or unsubstituted aliphatic nitrogen, substituted orunsubstituted cyclic nitrogen, substituted or unsubstituted aliphaticsulfur, substituted or unsubstituted cyclic sulfur, substituted orunsubstituted heterocyclic, and substituted or unsubstitutedheteroaromatic.

Substituted or Unsubstituted Aliphatic Nitrogen

In some embodiments, the ligand is a substituted or unsubstitutedaliphatic nitrogen of formula A:

wherein n and m independently are 0-2 and R and R¹ independently are H,alkyl, or substituted alkyl. In some embodiments, alkyl is methyl,ethyl, propyl, i-propyl, butyl, i-butyl, or pentyl. In some embodiments,the substituted alkyl is alkyl substituted with one or more of a groupincluding alkenyl, halogen, amine, substituted amine, and combinationthereof. In some embodiments, the substituted amine is substituted witha group selected from hydrogen and/or alkyl.

In some embodiments, the ligand is a substituted or unsubstitutedaliphatic nitrogen of formula B:

wherein R and R¹ independently are H, alkyl, or substituted alkyl. Insome embodiments, alkyl is methyl, ethyl, propyl, i-propyl, butyl,i-butyl, or pentyl. In some embodiments, the substituted alkyl is alkylsubstituted with one or more of a group including alkenyl, halogen,amine, substituted amine, and combination thereof. In some embodiments,the substituted amine is substituted with a group selected from hydrogenand/or alkyl.

In some embodiments, the ligand is a substituted or unsubstitutedaliphatic nitrogen donor of formula B, wherein R and R¹ independentlyare H, C₁-C₄ alkyl, or substituted C₁-C₄ alkyl. In some embodiments,C₁-C₄ alkyl is methyl, ethyl, propyl, i-propyl, butyl, or i-butyl. Insome embodiments, the substituted C₁-C₄ alkyl is C₁-C₄ alkyl substitutedwith one or more of a group including alkenyl, halogen, amine,substituted amine, and combination thereof. In some embodiments, thesubstituted amine is substituted with a group selected from hydrogenand/or C₁-C₃ alkyl.

The concentration of the ligand may be chosen based on variousparameters, including but not limited to, concentration of the metalion, solubility of the ligand etc.

Substituted or Unsubstituted Crown Ether with O, S, P or N Heteroatoms

In some embodiments, the ligand is a substituted or unsubstituted crownether of formula C:

wherein R is independently O, S, P, or N; and n is 0 or 1.

In some embodiments, the ligand is a substituted or unsubstituted crownether of formula C, wherein R is O and n is 0 or 1. In some embodiments,the ligand is a substituted or unsubstituted crown ether of formula C,wherein R is S and n is 0 or 1. In some embodiments, the ligand is asubstituted or unsubstituted crown ether of formula C, wherein R is Nand n is 0 or 1. In some embodiments, the ligand is a substituted orunsubstituted crown ether of formula C, wherein R is P and n is 0 or 1.In some embodiments, the ligand is a substituted or unsubstituted crownether of formula C, wherein R is O or S, and n is 0 or 1. In someembodiments, the ligand is a substituted or unsubstituted crown ether offormula C, wherein R is O or N, and n is 0 or 1. In some embodiments,the ligand is a substituted or unsubstituted crown ether of formula C,wherein R is N or S, and n is 0 or 1. In some embodiments, the ligand isa substituted or unsubstituted crown ether of formula C, wherein R is Nor P, and n is 0 or 1.

Substituted or Unsubstituted Phosphines

In some embodiments, the ligand is a substituted or unsubstitutedphosphine of formula D, or an oxide thereof:

wherein R¹, R², and R³ independently are H, alkyl, substituted alkyl,alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl,substituted heteroaryl, amine, substituted amine, cycloalkyl,substituted cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, and substitutedheterocycloalkyl.

An example of an oxide of formula D is:

wherein R¹, R², and R³ independently are H, alkyl, substituted alkyl,alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl,substituted heteroaryl, amine, substituted amine, cycloalkyl,substituted cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, and substitutedheterocycloalkyl.

In some embodiments of the compound of formula D or an oxide thereof,R¹, R², and R³ independently are alkyl and substituted alkyl. In someembodiments of the compound of formula D or an oxide thereof, R¹, R²,and R³ independently are alkyl and substituted alkyl wherein thesubstituted alkyl is substituted with group selected from alkoxy,substituted alkoxy, amine, and substituted amine. In some embodiments ofthe compound of formula D, or an oxide thereof, R¹, R², and R³independently are alkyl and substituted alkyl wherein the substitutedalkyl is substituted with group selected from alkoxy and amine.

In some embodiments of the compound of formula D or an oxide thereof,R¹, R², and R³ independently are alkoxy and substituted alkoxy. In someembodiments of the compound of formula D or an oxide thereof, R¹, R²,and R³ independently are alkoxy and substituted alkoxy wherein thesubstituted alkoxy is substituted with group selected from alkyl,substituted alkyl, amine, and substituted amine. In some embodiments ofthe compound of formula D or an oxide thereof, R¹, R², and R³independently are alkoxy and substituted alkoxy wherein the substitutedalkoxy is substituted with group selected from alkyl and amine.

In some embodiments of the compound of formula D or an oxide thereof,R¹, R², and R³ independently are aryl and substituted aryl. In someembodiments of the compound of formula D or an oxide thereof, R¹, R²,and R³ independently are aryl and substituted aryl wherein thesubstituted aryl is substituted with group selected from alkyl,substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, amine, and substitutedamine. In some embodiments of the compound of formula D or an oxidethereof, R¹, R², and R³ independently are aryl and substituted arylwherein the substituted aryl is substituted with group selected fromalkyl, alkoxy, and amine. In some embodiments of the compound of formulaD or an oxide thereof, R¹, R², and R³ independently are aryl andsubstituted aryl wherein the substituted aryl is substituted with groupselected from alkyl and alkoxy.

In some embodiments of the compound of formula D or an oxide thereof,R¹, R², and R³ independently are heteroaryl and substituted heteroaryl.In some embodiments of the compound of formula D or an oxide thereof,R¹, R², and R³ independently are heteroaryl and substituted heteroarylwherein the substituted heteroaryl is substituted with a group selectedfrom alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, amine, andsubstituted amine. In some embodiments of the compound of formula D oran oxide thereof, R¹, R², and R³ independently are heteroaryl andsubstituted heteroaryl wherein the substituted heteroaryl is substitutedwith a group selected from alkyl, alkoxy, and amine.

In some embodiments of the compound of formula D or an oxide thereof,R¹, R², and R³ independently are cycloalkyl and substituted cycloalkyl.In some embodiments of the compound of formula D or an oxide thereof,R¹, R², and R³ independently are cycloalkyl and substituted cycloalkylwherein the substituted cycloalkyl is substituted with a group selectedfrom alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, amine, andsubstituted amine. In some embodiments of the compound of formula D oran oxide thereof, R¹, R², and R³ independently are cycloalkyl andsubstituted cycloalkyl wherein the substituted cycloalkyl is substitutedwith a group selected from alkyl, alkoxy, and amine.

In some embodiments of the compound of formula D or an oxide thereof,R¹, R², and R³ independently are heterocycloalkyl and substitutedheterocycloalkyl. In some embodiments of the compound of formula D or anoxide thereof, R¹, R², and R³ independently are heterocycloalkyl andsubstituted heterocycloalkyl wherein the substituted heterocycloalkyl issubstituted with a group selected from alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy,substituted alkoxy, amine, and substituted amine. In some embodiments ofthe compound of formula D or an oxide thereof, R¹, R², and R³independently are heterocycloalkyl and substituted heterocycloalkylwherein the substituted heterocycloalkyl is substituted with a groupselected from alkyl, alkoxy, and amine.

In some embodiments of the compound of formula D or an oxide thereof,R¹, R², and R³ independently are amine and substituted amine. In someembodiments of the compound of formula D or an oxide thereof, R¹, R²,and R³ independently are amine and substituted amine wherein thesubstituted amine is substituted with a group selected from alkyl,substituted alkyl, alkoxy, and substituted alkoxy. In some embodimentsof the compound of formula D or an oxide thereof, R¹, R², and R³independently are amine and substituted amine wherein the substitutedamine is substituted with a group selected from alkyl, and alkoxy. Insome embodiments of the compound of formula D or an oxide thereof, R¹,R², and R³ independently are amine and substituted amine wherein thesubstituted amine is substituted with alkyl.

In some embodiments, the ligand is a substituted or unsubstitutedphosphine of formula D or an oxide thereof:

wherein R¹, R², and R³ independently are H, alkyl; substituted alkylsubstituted with a group selected from alkoxy, substituted alkoxy,amine, and substituted amine; aryl; substituted aryl substituted with agroup selected from alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substitutedalkoxy, amine, and substituted amine; heteroaryl; substituted heteroarylsubstituted with a group selected from alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy,substituted alkoxy, amine, and substituted amine; amine; substitutedamine substituted with a group selected from alkyl, substituted alkyl,alkoxy, and substituted alkoxy; cycloalkyl; substituted cycloalkylsubstituted with a group selected from alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy,substituted alkoxy, amine, and substituted amine; heterocycloalkyl; andsubstituted heterocycloalkyl substituted with a group selected fromalkyl, substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, amine, andsubstituted amine.

In some embodiments, the ligand is a substituted or unsubstitutedphosphine of formula D or an oxide thereof:

wherein R¹, R², and R³ independently are H, alkyl; substituted alkylsubstituted with a group selected from alkoxy and amine; aryl;substituted aryl substituted with a group selected from alkyl, alkoxy,and amine; heteroaryl; substituted heteroaryl substituted with a groupselected from alkyl, alkoxy, and amine; amine; substituted aminesubstituted with a group selected from alkyl, and alkoxy; cycloalkyl;substituted cycloalkyl substituted with a group selected from alkyl,alkoxy, and amine; heterocycloalkyl; and substituted heterocycloalkylsubstituted with a group selected from alkyl, alkoxy, and amine.

Substituted or Unsubstituted Pyridines

In some embodiments, the ligand is a substituted or unsubstitutedpyridine of formula E:

wherein R¹ and R² independently are H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl,substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, amine, substitutedamine, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, andsubstituted heterocycloalkyl.

In some embodiments, the ligand is a substituted or unsubstitutedpyridine of formula E:

wherein R¹ and R² independently are H, alkyl, substituted alkyl,heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, amine, and substituted amine.

In some embodiments, the ligand is a substituted or unsubstitutedpyridine of formula E, wherein R¹ and R² independently are H, alkyl, andsubstituted alkyl wherein substituted alkyl is substituted with a groupselected from alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, amine, and substituted amine.In some embodiments, the ligand is a substituted or unsubstitutedpyridine of formula E, wherein R¹ and R² independently are H, alkyl, andsubstituted alkyl wherein substituted alkyl is substituted with a groupselected from amine, and substituted amine wherein substituted amine issubstituted with an alkyl, heteroaryl or a substituted heteroaryl.

In some embodiments, the ligand is a substituted or unsubstitutedpyridine of formula E, wherein R¹ and R² independently are heteroaryland substituted heteroaryl. In some embodiments, the ligand is asubstituted or unsubstituted pyridine of formula E, wherein R¹ and R²independently are heteroaryl and substituted heteroaryl substituted withalkyl, alkoxy or amine.

In some embodiments, the ligand is a substituted or unsubstitutedpyridine of formula E, wherein R¹ and R² independently are amine andsubstituted amine. In some embodiments, the ligand is a substituted orunsubstituted pyridine of formula E, wherein R¹ and R² independently areamine and substituted amine wherein substituted amine is substitutedwith an alkyl, heteroaryl or a substituted heteroaryl.

In some embodiments, the ligand is a substituted or unsubstitutedpyridine of formula E:

wherein R¹ and R² independently are H; alkyl; substituted alkylsubstituted with a group selected from amine and substituted amine;heteroaryl; substituted heteroaryl substituted with alkyl, alkoxy oramine; amine; and substituted amine substituted with an alkyl,heteroaryl or a substituted heteroaryl.

Substituted or Unsubstituted Dinitriles

In some embodiments, the ligand is a substituted or unsubstituteddinitrile of formula F:

wherein R is hydrogen, alkyl, or substituted alkyl; n is 0-2; m is 0-3;and k is 1-3.

In some embodiments, the ligand is a substituted or unsubstituteddinitrile of formula F, wherein R is hydrogen, alkyl, or substitutedalkyl substituted with alkoxy or amine; n is 0-1; m is 0-3; and k is1-3.

In some embodiments, the ligand is a substituted or unsubstituteddinitrile of formula F, wherein R is hydrogen or alkyl; n is 0-1; m is0-3; and k is 1-3.

In one aspect, there is provided a composition comprising an aqueousmedium comprising a ligand selected from substituted or unsubstitutedphosphine, substituted or unsubstituted crown ether, substituted orunsubstituted aliphatic nitrogen, substituted or unsubstituted pyridine,substituted or unsubstituted dinitrile, and combination thereof; and ametal ion.

In one aspect, there is provided a composition comprising an aqueousmedium comprising a ligand selected from substituted or unsubstitutedphosphine, substituted or unsubstituted crown ether, substituted orunsubstituted aliphatic nitrogen, substituted or unsubstituted pyridine,substituted or unsubstituted dinitrile, and combination thereof; and ametal ion selected from iron, chromium, copper, tin, silver, cobalt,uranium, lead, mercury, vanadium, bismuth, titanium, ruthenium, osmium,europium, zinc, cadmium, gold, nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium,iridium, manganese, technetium, rhenium, molybdenum, tungsten, niobium,tantalum, zirconium, hafnium, and combination thereof.

In one aspect, there is provided a composition comprising an aqueousmedium comprising a ligand selected from substituted or unsubstitutedphosphine, substituted or unsubstituted crown ether, substituted orunsubstituted aliphatic nitrogen, substituted or unsubstituted pyridine,substituted or unsubstituted dinitrile, and combination thereof, a metalion; and a salt.

In one aspect, there is provided a composition comprising an aqueousmedium comprising a ligand selected from substituted or unsubstitutedphosphine, substituted or unsubstituted crown ether, substituted orunsubstituted aliphatic nitrogen, substituted or unsubstituted pyridine,substituted or unsubstituted dinitrile, and combination thereof; a metalion selected from iron, chromium, copper, tin, silver, cobalt, uranium,lead, mercury, vanadium, bismuth, titanium, ruthenium, osmium, europium,zinc, cadmium, gold, nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium, iridium,manganese, technetium, rhenium, molybdenum, tungsten, niobium, tantalum,zirconium, hafnium, and combination thereof; and a salt.

In one aspect, there is provided a composition comprising an aqueousmedium comprising a ligand selected from substituted or unsubstitutedphosphine, substituted or unsubstituted crown ether, substituted orunsubstituted aliphatic nitrogen, substituted or unsubstituted pyridine,substituted or unsubstituted dinitrile, and combination thereof; a metalion selected from iron, chromium, copper, tin, silver, cobalt, uranium,lead, mercury, vanadium, bismuth, titanium, ruthenium, osmium, europium,zinc, cadmium, gold, nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium, iridium,manganese, technetium, rhenium, molybdenum, tungsten, niobium, tantalum,zirconium, hafnium, and combination thereof; and a salt comprisingsodium chloride, ammonium chloride, sodium sulfate, ammonium sulfate,calcium chloride, or combination thereof.

In one aspect, there is provided a composition comprising an aqueousmedium comprising a ligand selected from substituted or unsubstitutedphosphine, substituted or unsubstituted crown ether, substituted orunsubstituted aliphatic nitrogen, substituted or unsubstituted pyridine,substituted or unsubstituted dinitrile, and combination thereof; a metalion; and a salt comprising sodium chloride, ammonium chloride, sodiumsulfate, ammonium sulfate, calcium chloride, or combination thereof.

In one aspect, there is provided a composition comprising an aqueousmedium comprising a ligand selected from substituted or unsubstitutedphosphine, substituted or unsubstituted crown ether, substituted orunsubstituted aliphatic nitrogen, substituted or unsubstituted pyridine,substituted or unsubstituted dinitrile, and combination thereof, a metalion; a salt; and an unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon.

In one aspect, there is provided a composition comprising an aqueousmedium comprising a ligand selected from substituted or unsubstitutedphosphine, substituted or unsubstituted crown ether, substituted orunsubstituted aliphatic nitrogen, substituted or unsubstituted pyridine,substituted or unsubstituted dinitrile, and combination thereof; a metalion selected from iron, chromium, copper, tin, silver, cobalt, uranium,lead, mercury, vanadium, bismuth, titanium, ruthenium, osmium, europium,zinc, cadmium, gold, nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium, iridium,manganese, technetium, rhenium, molybdenum, tungsten, niobium, tantalum,zirconium, hafnium, and combination thereof; a salt; and an unsaturatedor saturated hydrocarbon.

In one aspect, there is provided a composition comprising an aqueousmedium comprising a ligand selected from substituted or unsubstitutedphosphine, substituted or unsubstituted crown ether, substituted orunsubstituted aliphatic nitrogen, substituted or unsubstituted pyridine,substituted or unsubstituted dinitrile, and combination thereof; a metalion selected from iron, chromium, copper, tin, silver, cobalt, uranium,lead, mercury, vanadium, bismuth, titanium, ruthenium, osmium, europium,zinc, cadmium, gold, nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium, iridium,manganese, technetium, rhenium, molybdenum, tungsten, niobium, tantalum,zirconium, hafnium, and combination thereof; a salt comprising sodiumchloride, ammonium chloride, sodium sulfate, ammonium sulfate, calciumchloride, or combination thereof; and an unsaturated or saturatedhydrocarbon.

In one aspect, there is provided a composition comprising an aqueousmedium comprising a ligand selected from substituted or unsubstitutedphosphine, substituted or unsubstituted crown ether, substituted orunsubstituted aliphatic nitrogen, substituted or unsubstituted pyridine,substituted or unsubstituted dinitrile, and combination thereof; a metalion; a salt comprising sodium chloride, ammonium chloride, sodiumsulfate, ammonium sulfate, calcium chloride, or combination thereof; andan unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon.

In one aspect, there is provided a composition comprising an aqueousmedium comprising a ligand selected from substituted or unsubstitutedphosphine, substituted or unsubstituted crown ether, substituted orunsubstituted aliphatic nitrogen, substituted or unsubstituted pyridine,substituted or unsubstituted dinitrile, and combination thereof; a metalion; a salt comprising sodium chloride, ammonium chloride, sodiumsulfate, ammonium sulfate, calcium chloride, or combination thereof; andan unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon selected from ethylene,propylene, butylenes, ethane, propane, butane, and combination thereof.

In one aspect, there is provided a composition comprising an aqueousmedium comprising a ligand selected from substituted or unsubstitutedphosphine, substituted or unsubstituted crown ether, substituted orunsubstituted aliphatic nitrogen, substituted or unsubstituted pyridine,substituted or unsubstituted dinitrile, and combination thereof; a metalion selected from iron, chromium, copper, tin, silver, cobalt, uranium,lead, mercury, vanadium, bismuth, titanium, ruthenium, osmium, europium,zinc, cadmium, gold, nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium, iridium,manganese, technetium, rhenium, molybdenum, tungsten, niobium, tantalum,zirconium, hafnium, and combination thereof; a salt comprising sodiumchloride, ammonium chloride, sodium sulfate, ammonium sulfate, calciumchloride, or combination thereof; and an unsaturated or saturatedhydrocarbon selected from ethylene, propylene, butylenes, ethane,propane, butane, and combination thereof.

In some embodiments of the methods and systems provided herein, theligand is:

-   sulfonated bathocuprine;-   pyridine;-   tris(2-pyridylmethyl)amine;-   glutaronitrile;-   iminodiacetonitrile;-   malononitrile;-   succininitrile;-   tris(diethylamino)phosphine;-   tris(dimethylamino)phosphine;-   tri(2-furyl)phosphine;-   tris(4-methoxyphenyl)phosphine;-   bis(diethylamino)phenylphosphine;-   tris(N,N-tetramethylene)phosphoric acid triamide;-   di-tert-butyl N,N-diisopropyl phosphoramidite;-   diethylphosphoramidate;-   hexamethylphosphoramide;-   diethylenetriamine;-   tris(2-aminoethyl)amine;-   N,N,N′,N′,N″-pentamethyldiethylenetriamine;-   15-Crown-5;-   1,4,8,11-tetrathiacyclotetradecane; and-   salt, or stereoisomer thereof.

In some embodiments, there is provided a method of using a ligand,comprising adding a ligand to an anode electrolyte comprising a metalion solution and resulting in one or more of properties including, butnot limited to, enhanced reactivity of the metal ion towards theunsaturated hydrocarbon, saturated hydrocarbon, or hydrogen gas,enhanced selectivity of the metal ion towards halogenations of theunsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon, enhanced transfer of the halogenfrom the metal ion to the unsaturated hydrocarbon, saturatedhydrocarbon, or the hydrogen gas, reduced redox potential of theelectrochemical cell, enhanced solubility of the metal ion in theaqueous medium, reduced membrane cross-over of the metal ion to thecathode electrolyte in the electrochemical cell, reduced corrosion ofthe electrochemical cell and/or the reactor, enhanced separation of themetal ion from the acid solution after reaction with hydrogen gas,enhanced separation of the metal ion from the halogenated hydrocarbonsolution, and combination thereof.

In some embodiments, there is provided a method comprising improving anefficiency of an electrochemical cell wherein the electrochemical cellcomprises an anode in contact with an anode electrolyte comprising ametal ion where the anode oxidizes the metal ion from a lower oxidationstate to a higher oxidation state. In some embodiments, the efficiencyrelates to the voltage applied to the electrochemical cell.

As used herein, “alkenyl” refers to linear or branched hydrocarbylhaving from 2 to 10 carbon atoms and in some embodiments from 2 to 6carbon atoms or 2 to 4 carbon atoms and having at least 1 site of vinylunsaturation (>C═C<). For example, ethenyl, propenyl, 1,3-butadienyl,and the like.

As used herein, “alkoxy” refers to —O-alkyl wherein alkyl is definedherein. Alkoxy includes, by way of example, methoxy, ethoxy, n-propoxy,isopropoxy, n-butoxy, t-butoxy, sec-butoxy, and n-pentoxy.

As used herein, “alkyl” refers to monovalent saturated aliphatichydrocarbyl groups having from 1 to 10 carbon atoms and, in someembodiments, from 1 to 6 carbon atoms. “C_(x)—C_(y) alkyl” refers toalkyl groups having from x to y carbon atoms. This term includes, by wayof example, linear and branched hydrocarbyl groups such as methyl(CH₃—), ethyl (CH₃CH₂—), n-propyl (CH₃CH₂CH₂—), isopropyl ((CH₃)₂CH—),n-butyl (CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂—), isobutyl ((CH₃)₂CHCH₂—), sec-butyl((CH₃)(CH₃CH₂)CH—), t-butyl ((CH₃)₃C—), n-pentyl (CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂—), andneopentyl ((CH₃)₃CCH₂—).

As used herein, “amino” or “amine” refers to the group —NH₂.

As used herein, “aryl” refers to an aromatic group of from 6 to 14carbon atoms and no ring heteroatoms and having a single ring (e.g.,phenyl) or multiple condensed (fused) rings (e.g., naphthyl or anthryl).

As used herein, “cycloalkyl” refers to a saturated or partiallysaturated cyclic group of from 3 to 14 carbon atoms and no ringheteroatoms and having a single ring or multiple rings including fused,bridged, and spiro ring systems. Examples of cycloalkyl groups include,for instance, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclooctyl, andcyclohexenyl.

As used herein, “halo” or “halogen” refers to fluoro, chloro, bromo, andiodo.

As used herein, “heteroaryl” refers to an aromatic group of from 1 to 6heteroatoms selected from the group consisting of oxygen, nitrogen, andsulfur and includes single ring (e.g. furanyl) and multiple ring systems(e.g. benzimidazol-2-yl and benzimidazol-6-yl). The heteroaryl includes,but is not limited to, pyridyl, furanyl, thienyl, thiazolyl,isothiazolyl, triazolyl, imidazolyl, isoxazolyl, pyrrolyl, pyrazolyl,pyridazinyl, pyrimidinyl, benzofuranyl, tetrahydrobenzofuranyl,isobenzofuranyl, benzothiazolyl, benzoisothiazolyl, benzotriazolyl,indolyl, isoindolyl, benzoxazolyl, quinolyl, tetrahydroquinolinyl,isoquinolyl, quinazolinonyl, benzimidazolyl, benzisoxazolyl, orbenzothienyl.

As used herein, “heterocycloalkyl” refers to a saturated or partiallysaturated cyclic group having from 1 to 5 heteroatoms selected from thegroup consisting of nitrogen, sulfur, or oxygen and includes single ringand multiple ring systems including fused, bridged, and spiro ringsystems. The heterocyclyl includes, but is not limited to,tetrahydropyranyl, piperidinyl, N-methylpiperidin-3-yl, piperazinyl,N-methylpyrrolidin-3-yl, 3-pyrrolidinyl, 2-pyrrolidon-1-yl, morpholinyl,and pyrrolidinyl.

As used herein, “substituted alkoxy” refers to —O-substituted alkylwherein substituted alkyl is as defined herein.

As used herein, “substituted alkyl” refers to an alkyl group having from1 to 5 and, in some embodiments, 1 to 3 or 1 to 2 substituents selectedfrom the group consisting of alkenyl, halogen, —OH, —COOH, amino,substituted amino, wherein said substituents are as defined herein.

As used herein, “substituted amino” or “substituted amine” refers to thegroup —NR¹⁰R¹¹ where R¹⁰ and R¹¹ are independently selected from thegroup consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl,substituted aryl, heteroaryl, and substituted heteroaryl.

As used herein, “substituted aryl” refers to aryl groups which aresubstituted with 1 to 8 and, in some embodiments, 1 to 5, 1 to 3, or 1to 2 substituents selected from the group consisting of alkyl,substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, amine, substituted amine,alkenyl, halogen, —OH, and —COOH, wherein said substituents are asdefined herein.

As used herein, “substituted cycloalkyl” refers to a cycloalkyl group,as defined herein, having from 1 to 8, or 1 to 5, or in some embodiments1 to 3 substituents selected from the group consisting of alkyl,substituted alkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, amine, substituted amine,alkenyl, halogen, —OH, and —COOH, wherein said substituents are asdefined herein.

As used herein, “substituted heteroaryl” refers to heteroaryl groupsthat are substituted with from 1 to 5, or 1 to 3, or 1 to 2 substituentsselected from the group consisting of the substituents defined forsubstituted aryl.

As used herein, “substituted heterocycloalkyl” refers to heterocyclicgroups, as defined herein, that are substituted with from 1 to 5 or insome embodiments 1 to 3 of the substituents as defined for substitutedcycloalkyl.

It is understood that in all substituted groups defined above, polymersarrived at by defining substituents with further substituents tothemselves (e.g., substituted aryl having a substituted aryl group as asubstituent which is itself substituted with a substituted aryl group,etc.) are not intended for inclusion herein. In such cases, the maximumnumber of such substitutions is three. Similarly, it is understood thatthe above definitions are not intended to include impermissiblesubstitution patterns (e.g., methyl substituted with 5 chloro groups).Such impermissible substitution patterns are well known to the skilledartisan.

In some embodiments, the concentration of the ligand in theelectrochemical cell is dependent on the concentration of the metal ionin the lower and/or the higher oxidation state. In some embodiments, theconcentration of the ligand is between 0.25M-5M; or between 0.25M-4M; orbetween 0.25M-3M; or between 0.5M-5M; or between 0.5M-4M; or between0.5M-3M; or between 0.5M-2.5M; or between 0.5M-2M; or between 0.5M-1.5M;or between 0.5M-1M; or between 1M-2M; or between 1.5M-2.5M; or between1.5M-2M.

In some embodiments, the ratio of the concentration of the ligand andthe concentration of the Cu(I) ion is between 1:1 to 4:1; or between 1:1to 3:1; or between 1:1 to 2:1; or is 1:1; or 2:1, or 3:1, or 4:1.

In some embodiments, the solution used in the catalytic reaction, i.e.,the reaction of the metal ion in the higher oxidation state with theunsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon, and the solution used in theelectrochemical reaction, contain the concentration of the metal ion inthe higher oxidation state, such as Cu(II), between 4.5M-7M, theconcentration of the metal ion in the lower oxidation state, such asCu(I), between 0.25M-1.5M, and the concentration of the ligand between0.25M-6M. In some embodiments, the concentration of the sodium chloridein the solution may affect the solubility of the ligand and/or the metalion; the yield and selectivity of the catalytic reaction; and/or theefficiency of the electrochemical cell. Accordingly, in someembodiments, the concentration of sodium chloride in the solution isbetween 1M-3M. In some embodiments, the solution used in the catalyticreaction, i.e., the reaction of the metal ion in the higher oxidationstate with the unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon, and the solutionused in the electrochemical reaction, contain the concentration of themetal ion in the higher oxidation state, such as Cu(II), between4.5M-7M, the concentration of the metal ion in the lower oxidationstate, such as Cu(I), between 0.25M-1.5M, the concentration of theligand between 0.25M-6M, and the concentration of sodium chloridebetween 1M-3M.

Electrochemical Methods and Systems

In one aspect, there are provided methods including contacting an anodewith a metal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anode chamber; convertingthe metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation statein the anode chamber; and contacting a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte in a cathode chamber. In one aspect, there are providedmethods including contacting an anode with a metal ion in an anodeelectrolyte in an anode chamber; converting the metal ion from a loweroxidation state to a higher oxidation state in the anode chamber;contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte in a cathode chamber;and forming an alkali, water, and/or hydrogen gas in the cathodechamber. In one aspect, there are provided methods including contactingan anode with a metal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anode chamber;converting the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state in the anode chamber; and treating the metal ion in thehigher oxidation state with an unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon. Insome embodiments, the treatment of the metal ion in the higher oxidationstate with the unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon results in theformation of halohydrocarbons. In some embodiments, the treatment of themetal ion in the higher oxidation state with an unsaturated or saturatedhydrocarbon, is inside the anode chamber. In some embodiments, thetreatment of the metal ion in the higher oxidation state with anunsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon, is outside the anode chamber. Insome embodiments, the cathode is an oxygen depolarized cathode.

Some embodiments of the electrochemical cells are as illustrated in thefigures and described herein. It is to be understood that the figuresare for illustration purposes only and that variations in the reagentsand set up are well within the scope of the invention. All theelectrochemical methods and systems described herein do not producechlorine gas as is found in the chlor-alkali systems. All the systemsand methods related to the halogenation or sulfonation of theunsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon, do not use oxygen gas in thecatalytic reactor.

In some embodiments, there are provided methods that include contactingan anode with a metal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anode chamber;converting or oxidizing the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to ahigher oxidation state at the anode; and contacting a cathode with acathode electrolyte in a cathode chamber; and forming an alkali, water,and/or hydrogen gas at the cathode. In some embodiments, there areprovided methods that include contacting an anode with a metal ion in ananode electrolyte in an anode chamber; oxidizing the metal ion from alower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state at the anode;contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte in a cathode chamber;forming an alkali, water, and/or hydrogen gas at the cathode; andcontacting the anode electrolyte comprising metal ion in the higheroxidation state with an unsaturated and/or saturated hydrocarbon to formhalogenated hydrocarbon, or contacting the anode electrolyte comprisingmetal ion in the higher oxidation state with hydrogen gas to form anacid, or combination of both.

In some embodiments, there are provided systems that include an anodechamber comprising an anode in contact with a metal ion in an anodeelectrolyte, wherein the anode chamber is configured to convert themetal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state; anda cathode chamber comprising a cathode in contact with a cathodeelectrolyte. In another aspect, there are provided systems including ananode chamber containing an anode in contact with a metal ion in ananode electrolyte, wherein the anode chamber is configured to convertthe metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state;and a cathode chamber containing a cathode in contact with a cathodeelectrolyte, wherein the cathode chamber is configured to produce analkali, water, and/or hydrogen gas. In some embodiments, there areprovided systems that include an anode chamber comprising an anode incontact with a metal ion in an anode electrolyte, wherein the anode isconfigured to convert the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to ahigher oxidation state; and a cathode chamber comprising a cathode incontact with a cathode electrolyte wherein the cathode is configured toform an alkali, water, and/or hydrogen gas in the cathode electrolyte;and a reactor operably connected to the anode chamber and configured tocontact the anode electrolyte comprising metal ion in the higheroxidation state with an unsaturated and/or saturated hydrocarbon and/orhydrogen gas to form halogenated hydrocarbon or acid, respectively. Inanother aspect, there are provided systems including an anode chambercomprising an anode in contact with a metal ion in an anode electrolytewherein the anode chamber is configured to convert the metal ion from alower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state and an unsaturatedand/or saturated hydrocarbon delivery system configured to deliver theunsaturated and/or saturated hydrocarbon to the anode chamber whereinthe anode chamber is also configured to convert the unsaturated and/orsaturated hydrocarbon to halogenated hydrocarbon.

As illustrated in FIG. 1A, the electrochemical system 100A includes ananode chamber with an anode in contact with an anode electrolyte wherethe anode electrolyte contains metal ions in lower oxidation state(represented as M^(L+)) which are converted by the anode to metal ionsin higher oxidation state (represented as M^(H+)). The metal ion may bein the form of a sulfate, chloride, bromide, or iodide.

As used herein “lower oxidation state” represented as L+ in M^(L+)includes the lower oxidation state of the metal. For example, loweroxidation state of the metal ion may be 1+, 2+, 3+, 4+, or 5+. As usedherein “higher oxidation state” represented as H+ in M^(H+) includes thehigher oxidation state of the metal. For example, higher oxidation stateof the metal ion may be 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, or 6+.

The electron(s) generated at the anode are used to drive the reaction atthe cathode. The cathode reaction may be any reaction known in the art.The anode chamber and the cathode chamber may be separated by an ionexchange membrane (IEM) that may allow the passage of ions, such as, butnot limited to, sodium ions in some embodiments to the cathodeelectrolyte if the anode electrolyte is sodium chloride or sodiumsulfate etc. containing metal halide. Some reactions that may occur atthe cathode include, but not limited to, reaction of water to formhydroxide ions and hydrogen gas, reaction of oxygen gas and water toform hydroxide ions, reduction of HCl to form hydrogen gas; or reactionof HCl and oxygen gas to form water.

As illustrated in FIG. 1B, the electrochemical system 100B includes acathode chamber with a cathode in contact with the cathode electrolytethat forms hydroxide ions in the cathode electrolyte. Theelectrochemical system 100B also includes an anode chamber with an anodein contact with the anode electrolyte where the anode electrolytecontains metal ions in lower oxidation state (represented as M^(L+))which are converted by the anode to metal ions in higher oxidation state(represented as M^(H+)). The electron(s) generated at the anode are usedto drive the reaction at the cathode. The anode chamber and the cathodechamber are separated by an ion exchange membrane (IEM) that allows thepassage of sodium ions to the cathode electrolyte if the anodeelectrolyte is sodium chloride, sodium bromide, sodium iodide, sodiumsulfate, ammonium chloride etc. or an equivalent solution containing themetal halide. In some embodiments, the ion exchange membrane allows thepassage of anions, such as, but not limited to, chloride ions, bromideions, iodide ions, or sulfate ions to the anode electrolyte if thecathode electrolyte is e.g., sodium chloride, sodium bromide, sodiumiodide, or sodium sulfate or an equivalent solution. The sodium ionscombine with hydroxide ions in the cathode electrolyte to form sodiumhydroxide. The anions combine with metal ions to form metal halide ormetal sulfate. It is to be understood that the hydroxide formingcathode, as illustrated in FIG. 1B is for illustration purposes only andother cathodes such as, cathode reducing HCl to form hydrogen gas orcathode reacting both HCl and oxygen gas to form water, are equallyapplicable to the systems. Such cathodes have been described herein.

In some embodiments, the electrochemical systems of the inventioninclude one or more ion exchange membranes. Accordingly, in someembodiments, there are provided methods that include contacting an anodewith a metal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anode chamber; oxidizingthe metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation stateat the anode; contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte in acathode chamber; forming an alkali, water, and/or hydrogen gas at thecathode; and separating the cathode and the anode by at least one ionexchange membrane. In some embodiments, there are provided methods thatinclude contacting an anode with a metal ion in an anode electrolyte inan anode chamber; oxidizing the metal ion from a lower oxidation stateto a higher oxidation state at the anode; contacting a cathode with acathode electrolyte in a cathode chamber; forming an alkali, water,and/or hydrogen gas at the cathode; separating the cathode and the anodeby at least one ion exchange membrane; and contacting the anodeelectrolyte comprising metal ion in the higher oxidation state with anunsaturated and/or saturated hydrocarbon to form halogenatedhydrocarbon, or contacting the anode electrolyte comprising metal ion inthe higher oxidation state with hydrogen gas to form an acid, orcombination of both. In some embodiments, the ion exchange membrane is acation exchange membrane (CEM), an anion exchange membrane (AEM); orcombination thereof.

In some embodiments, there are provided systems that include an anodechamber comprising an anode in contact with a metal ion in an anodeelectrolyte, wherein the anode is configured to convert the metal ionfrom a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state; a cathodechamber comprising a cathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte,wherein the cathode is configured to produce an alkali, water, and/orhydrogen gas; and at least one ion exchange membrane separating thecathode and the anode. In some embodiments, there are provided systemsthat include an anode chamber comprising an anode in contact with ametal ion in an anode electrolyte, wherein the anode is configured toconvert the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidationstate; a cathode chamber comprising a cathode in contact with a cathodeelectrolyte, wherein the cathode is configured to produce an alkali,water, and/or hydrogen gas; at least one ion exchange membraneseparating the cathode and the anode; and a reactor operably connectedto the anode chamber and configured to contact the anode electrolytecomprising metal ion in the higher oxidation state with an unsaturatedand/or saturated hydrocarbon and/or hydrogen gas to form a halogenatedhydrocarbon and acid, respectively. In some embodiments, the ionexchange membrane is a cation exchange membrane (CEM), an anion exchangemembrane (AEM); or combination thereof.

As illustrated in FIG. 2, the electrochemical system 200 includes acathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte and an anode in contactwith an anode electrolyte. The cathode forms hydroxide ions in thecathode electrolyte and the anode converts metal ions from loweroxidation state (M^(L+)) to higher oxidation state (M^(H+)). The anodeand the cathode are separated by an anion exchange membrane (AEM) and acation exchange membrane (CEM). A third electrolyte (e.g., sodiumchloride, sodium bromide, sodium iodide, sodium sulfate, ammoniumchloride, or combination thereof or an equivalent solution) is disposedbetween the AEM and the CEM. The sodium ions from the third electrolytepass through CEM to form sodium hydroxide in the cathode chamber and thehalide anions such as, chloride, bromide or iodide ions, or sulfateanions, from the third electrolyte pass through the AEM to form asolution for metal halide or metal sulfate in the anode chamber. Themetal halide or metal sulfate formed in the anode electrolyte is thendelivered to a reactor for reaction with hydrogen gas or an unsaturatedor saturated hydrocarbon to generate hydrogen chloride, hydrochloricacid, hydrogen bromide, hydrobromic acid, hydrogen iodide, or hydroiodicacid and/or halohydrocarbons, respectively. The third electrolyte, afterthe transfer of the ions, can be withdrawn from the middle chamber asdepleted ion solution. For example, in some embodiments when the thirdelectrolyte is sodium chloride solution, then after the transfer of thesodium ions to the cathode electrolyte and transfer of chloride ions tothe anode electrolyte, the depleted sodium chloride solution may bewithdrawn from the middle chamber. The depleted salt solution may beused for commercial purposes or may be transferred to the anode and/orcathode chamber as an electrolyte or concentrated for re-use as thethird electrolyte. In some embodiments, the depleted salt solution maybe useful for preparing desalinated water. It is to be understood thatthe hydroxide forming cathode, as illustrated in FIG. 2 is forillustration purposes only and other cathodes such as, cathode reducingHCl to form hydrogen gas or cathode reacting both HCl and oxygen gas toform water, are equally applicable to the systems and have beendescribed further herein.

In some embodiments, the two ion exchange membranes, as illustrated inFIG. 2, may be replaced by one ion exchange membrane as illustrated inFIG. 1A or 1B. In some embodiments, the ion exchange membrane is ananion exchange membrane, as illustrated in FIG. 3A. In such embodiments,the cathode electrolyte may be a sodium halide, sodium sulfate or anequivalent solution and the AEM is such that it allows the passage ofanions to the anode electrolyte but prevents the passage of metal ionsfrom the anode electrolyte to the cathode electrolyte. In someembodiments, the ion exchange membrane is a cation exchange membrane, asillustrated in FIG. 3B. In such embodiments, the anode electrolyte maybe a sodium halide, sodium sulfate or an equivalent solution containingthe metal halide solution or an equivalent solution and the CEM is suchthat it allows the passage of sodium cations to the cathode electrolytebut prevents the passage of metal ions from the anode electrolyte to thecathode electrolyte. In some embodiments, the use of one ion exchangemembrane instead of two ion exchange membranes may reduce the resistanceoffered by multiple IEMs and may facilitate lower voltages for runningthe electrochemical reaction. Some examples of the suitable anionexchange membranes are provided herein.

In some embodiments, the cathode used in the electrochemical systems ofthe invention, is a hydrogen gas producing cathode. Accordingly, in someembodiments, there are provided methods that include contacting an anodewith a metal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anode chamber; oxidizingthe metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation stateat the anode; contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte in acathode chamber; forming an alkali and hydrogen gas at the cathode. Insome embodiments, there are provided methods that include contacting ananode with a metal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anode chamber;oxidizing the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the anode; contacting a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte in a cathode chamber; forming an alkali and hydrogen gas atthe cathode; and contacting the anode electrolyte comprising metal ionin the higher oxidation state with an unsaturated or saturatedhydrocarbon to form halogenated hydrocarbon, or contacting the anodeelectrolyte comprising metal ion in the higher oxidation state withhydrogen gas to form an acid, or combination of both. In someembodiments, the method further includes separating the cathode and theanode by at least one ion exchange membrane. In some embodiments, theion exchange membrane is a cation exchange membrane (CEM), an anionexchange membrane (AEM); or combination thereof. In some embodiments,the above recited method includes an anode that does not form a gas. Insome embodiments, the method includes an anode that does not use a gas.

In some embodiments, there are provided systems that include an anodechamber comprising an anode in contact with a metal ion in an anodeelectrolyte, wherein the anode is configured to convert the metal ionfrom a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state; and a cathodechamber comprising a cathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte,wherein the cathode is configured to produce an alkali and hydrogen gas.In some embodiments, there are provided systems that include an anodechamber comprising an anode in contact with a metal ion in an anodeelectrolyte, wherein the anode is configured to convert the metal ionfrom a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state; and a cathodechamber comprising a cathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte,wherein the cathode is configured to produce an alkali and hydrogen gas;and a reactor operably connected to the anode chamber and configured tocontact the anode electrolyte comprising metal ion in the higheroxidation state with an unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon and/orhydrogen gas to form a halogenated hydrocarbon and acid, respectively.In some embodiments, the system is configured to not produce a gas atthe anode. In some embodiments, the system is configured to not use agas at the anode. In some embodiments, the system further includes atleast one ion exchange membrane separating the cathode and the anode. Insome embodiments, the ion exchange membrane is a cation exchangemembrane (CEM), an anion exchange membrane (AEM); or combinationthereof.

For example, as illustrated in FIG. 4A, the electrochemical system 400includes a cathode in contact with the cathode electrolyte 401 where thehydroxide is formed in the cathode electrolyte. The system 400 alsoincludes an anode in contact with the anode electrolyte 402 thatconverts metal ions in the lower oxidation state (M^(L+)) to metal ionsin the higher oxidation states (M^(H+)). Following are the reactionsthat take place at the cathode and the anode:

H₂O+e ⁻→1/2H₂+OH⁻(cathode)

M^(L+)→M^(H+) +xe ⁻(anode where x=1-3)

For example, Fe²⁺→Fe³⁺ +e ⁻(anode)

Cr²⁺→Cr³⁺ +e ⁻(anode)

Sn²⁺→Sn⁴⁺+2e ⁻(anode)

Cu⁺→Cu²⁺ +e ⁻(anode)

As illustrated in FIG. 4A, the electrochemical system 400 includes acathode that forms hydroxide ions and hydrogen gas at the cathode. Thehydrogen gas may be vented out or captured and stored for commercialpurposes. In some embodiments, the hydrogen released at the cathode maybe subjected to halogenations or sulfonation (including sulfation) withthe metal halide or metal sulfate formed in the anode electrolyte toform hydrogen chloride, hydrochloric acid, hydrogen bromide, hydrobromicacid, hydrogen iodide, hydroiodic acid, or sulfuric acid. Such reactionis described in detail herein. The M^(H+) formed at the anode combineswith chloride ions to form metal chloride in the higher oxidation statesuch as, but not limited to, FeCl₃, CrCl₃, SnCl₄, or CuCl₂ etc. Thehydroxide ion formed at the cathode combines with sodium ions to formsodium hydroxide.

It is to be understood that chloride ions in this application are forillustration purposes only and that other equivalent ions such as, butnot limited to, sulfate, bromide or iodide are also well within thescope of the invention and would result in corresponding metal halide ormetal sulfate in the anode electrolyte. It is also to be understood thatMCl_(n) shown in the figures illustrated herein, is a mixture of themetal ion in the lower oxidation state as well as the metal ion in thehigher oxidation state. The integer n in MCl_(n) merely represents themetal ion in the lower and higher oxidation state and may be from 1-5 ormore depending on the metal ion. For example, in some embodiments, wherecopper is the metal ion, the MCl_(n) may be a mixture of CuCl and CuCl₂.This mixture of copper ions in the anode electrolyte may be thencontacted with the hydrogen gas, unsaturated hydrocarbon, and/orsaturated hydrocarbon to form respective products.

In some embodiments, the cathode used in the electrochemical systems ofthe invention, is a hydrogen gas producing cathode that does not form analkali. Accordingly, in some embodiments, there are provided methodsthat include contacting an anode with a metal ion in an anodeelectrolyte in an anode chamber; oxidizing the metal ion from a loweroxidation state to a higher oxidation state at the anode; contacting acathode with a cathode electrolyte in a cathode chamber; forminghydrogen gas at the cathode. In some embodiments, there are providedmethods that include contacting an anode with a metal ion in an anodeelectrolyte in an anode chamber; oxidizing the metal ion from a loweroxidation state to a higher oxidation state at the anode; contacting acathode with a cathode electrolyte in a cathode chamber; forminghydrogen gas at the cathode; and contacting the anode electrolytecomprising metal ion in the higher oxidation state with an unsaturatedor saturated hydrocarbon to form halogenated hydrocarbon, or contactingthe anode electrolyte comprising metal ion in the higher oxidation statewith hydrogen gas to form an acid, or combination of both. In someembodiments, the method further includes separating the cathode and theanode by at least one ion exchange membrane. In some embodiments, theion exchange membrane is a cation exchange membrane (CEM), an anionexchange membrane (AEM); or combination thereof. In some embodiments,the above recited method includes an anode that does not form a gas. Insome embodiments, the method includes an anode that does not use a gas.

In some embodiments, there are provided systems that include an anodechamber comprising an anode in contact with a metal ion in an anodeelectrolyte, wherein the anode is configured to convert the metal ionfrom a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state; and a cathodechamber comprising a cathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte,wherein the cathode is configured to produce hydrogen gas. In someembodiments, there are provided systems that include an anode chambercomprising an anode in contact with a metal ion in an anode electrolyte,wherein the anode is configured to convert the metal ion from a loweroxidation state to a higher oxidation state; and a cathode chambercomprising a cathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte, wherein thecathode is configured to produce hydrogen gas; and a reactor operablyconnected to the anode chamber and configured to contact the anodeelectrolyte comprising metal ion in the higher oxidation state with anunsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon and/or hydrogen gas to form ahalogenated hydrocarbon and acid, respectively. In some embodiments, thesystem is configured to not produce a gas at the anode. In someembodiments, the system is configured to not use a gas at the anode. Insome embodiments, the system further includes at least one ion exchangemembrane separating the cathode and the anode. In some embodiments, theion exchange membrane is a cation exchange membrane (CEM), an anionexchange membrane (AEM); or combination thereof.

For example, as illustrated in FIG. 4B, the electrochemical system 400includes a cathode in contact with the cathode electrolyte 401 where thehydrochloric acid delivered to the cathode electrolyte is transformed tohydrogen gas in the cathode electrolyte. The system 400 also includes ananode in contact with the anode electrolyte 402 that converts metal ionsin the lower oxidation state (M^(L+)) to metal ions in the higheroxidation states (M^(H+)). Following are the reactions that take placeat the cathode and the anode:

2H⁺+2e ⁻→H₂(cathode)

M^(L+)→M^(H+) +xe ⁻(anode where x=1-3)

For example, Fe²⁺→Fe³⁺ +e ⁻(anode)

Cr²⁺→Cr³⁺ +e ⁻(anode)

Sn²⁺→Sn⁴⁺+2e ⁻(anode)

Cu⁺→Cu²⁺ +e ⁻(anode)

As illustrated in FIG. 4B, the electrochemical system 400 includes acathode that forms hydrogen gas at the cathode. The hydrogen gas may bevented out or captured and stored for commercial purposes. In someembodiments, the hydrogen released at the cathode may be subjected tohalogenations or sulfonation (including sulfation) with the metal halideor metal sulfate formed in the anode electrolyte to form hydrogenchloride, hydrochloric acid, hydrogen bromide, hydrobromic acid,hydrogen iodide, hydroiodic acid, or sulfuric acid. Such reaction isdescribed in detail herein. The M^(H+) formed at the anode combines withchloride ions to form metal chloride in the higher oxidation state suchas, but not limited to, FeCl₃, CrCl₃, SnCl₄, or CuCl₂ etc. The hydroxideion formed at the cathode combines with sodium ions to form sodiumhydroxide.

It is to be understood that one AEM in FIG. 4B is for illustrationpurposes only and the system can be designed to have CEM with HCldelivered into the anode electrolyte and the hydrogen ions passingthrough the CEM to the cathode electrolyte. In some embodiments, thesystem illustrated in FIG. 4B may contain both AEM and CEM with themiddle chamber containing a chloride salt. It is also to be understoodthat MCl_(n) shown in the figures illustrated herein, is a mixture ofthe metal ion in the lower oxidation state as well as the metal ion inthe higher oxidation state. The integer n in MCl_(n) merely representsthe metal ion in the lower and higher oxidation state and may be from1-5 or more depending on the metal ion. For example, in someembodiments, where copper is the metal ion, the MCl_(n) may be a mixtureof CuCl and CuCl₂. This mixture of copper ions in the anode electrolytemay be then contacted with the hydrogen gas, unsaturated hydrocarbon,and/or saturated hydrocarbon to form respective products.

In some embodiments, the cathode in the electrochemical systems of theinvention may be a gas-diffusion cathode. In some embodiments, thecathode in the electrochemical systems of the invention may be agas-diffusion cathode forming an alkali at the cathode. In someembodiments, there are provided methods that include contacting an anodewith a metal ion in an anode electrolyte; oxidizing the metal ion from alower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state at the anode; andcontacting a gas-diffusion cathode with a cathode electrolyte. In someembodiments, the gas-diffusion cathode is an oxygen depolarized cathode(ODC). In some embodiments, the method includes forming an alkali at theODC. In some embodiments, there are provided methods that includecontacting an anode with an anode electrolyte, oxidizing a metal ionfrom the lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state at the anode;and contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte wherein the cathodeis an oxygen depolarizing cathode that reduces oxygen and water tohydroxide ions. In some embodiments, there are provided methods thatinclude contacting an anode with a metal ion in an anode electrolyte inan anode chamber; oxidizing the metal ion from a lower oxidation stateto a higher oxidation state at the anode; contacting a gas-diffusioncathode with a cathode electrolyte in a cathode chamber; forming analkali at the cathode; and contacting the anode electrolyte comprisingthe metal ion in the higher oxidation state with an unsaturated and/orsaturated hydrocarbon to form halogenated hydrocarbon, or contacting theanode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in the higher oxidation statewith hydrogen gas to form an acid, or combination of both. In someembodiments, the gas-diffusion cathode does not form a gas. In someembodiments, the method includes an anode that does not form a gas. Insome embodiments, the method includes an anode that does not use a gas.In some embodiments, the method further includes separating the cathodeand the anode by at least one ion exchange membrane. In someembodiments, the ion exchange membrane is a cation exchange membrane(CEM), an anion exchange membrane (AEM); or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, there are provided systems that include an anodechamber comprising an anode in contact with a metal ion in an anodeelectrolyte, wherein the anode is configured to convert or oxidize themetal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state; anda cathode chamber comprising a gas-diffusion cathode in contact with acathode electrolyte, wherein the cathode is configured to produce analkali. In some embodiments, the gas-diffusion cathode is an oxygendepolarized cathode (ODC). In some embodiments, there are providedsystems that include an anode chamber comprising an anode in contactwith a metal ion in an anode electrolyte, wherein the anode isconfigured to convert the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to ahigher oxidation state; and a cathode chamber comprising a gas-diffusioncathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte, wherein the cathode isconfigured to produce an alkali; and a reactor operably connected to theanode chamber and configured to contact the anode electrolyte comprisingthe metal ion in the higher oxidation state with an unsaturated and/orsaturated hydrocarbon and/or hydrogen gas to form a halogenatedhydrocarbon and acid, respectively. In some embodiments, the system isconfigured to not produce a gas at the gas-diffusion cathode. In someembodiments, the system is configured to not produce a gas at the anode.In some embodiments, the system is configured to not use a gas at theanode. In some embodiments, the system further includes at least one ionexchange membrane separating the cathode and the anode. In someembodiments, the ion exchange membrane is a cation exchange membrane(CEM), an anion exchange membrane (AEM); or combination thereof.

As used herein, the “gas-diffusion cathode,” or “gas-diffusionelectrode,” or other equivalents thereof include any electrode capableof reacting a gas to form ionic species. In some embodiments, thegas-diffusion cathode, as used herein, is an oxygen depolarized cathode(ODC). Such gas-diffusion cathode may be called gas-diffusion electrode,oxygen consuming cathode, oxygen reducing cathode, oxygen breathingcathode, oxygen depolarized cathode, and the like.

In some embodiments, as illustrated in FIG. 5A, the combination of thegas diffusion cathode (e.g., ODC) and the anode in the electrochemicalcell may result in the generation of alkali in the cathode chamber. Insome embodiments, the electrochemical system 500 includes a gasdiffusion cathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte 501 and an anodein contact with an anode electrolyte 502. The anode and the cathode areseparated by an anion exchange membrane (AEM) and a cation exchangemembrane (CEM). A third electrolyte (e.g., sodium halide or sodiumsulfate) is disposed between the AEM and the CEM. Following are thereactions that may take place at the anode and the cathode.

H₂O+1/2O₂+2e ⁻→2OH⁻(cathode)

M^(L+)→M^(H+) +xe ⁻(anode where x=1-3)

For example, 2Fe²⁺→2Fe³⁺+2e ⁻(anode)

2Cr²⁺→2Cr³⁺+2e ⁻(anode)

Sn²⁺→Sn⁴⁺+2e ⁻(anode)

2Cu⁺→2Cu²⁺+2e ⁻(anode)

The M^(H+) formed at the anode combines with chloride ions to form metalchloride MCl_(n) such as, but not limited to, FeCl₃, CrCl₃, SnCl₄, orCuCl₂ etc. The hydroxide ion formed at the cathode reacts with sodiumions to form sodium hydroxide. The oxygen at the cathode may beatmospheric air or any commercial available source of oxygen.

The methods and systems containing the gas-diffusion cathode or the ODC,as described herein and illustrated in FIG. 5A, may result in voltagesavings as compared to methods and systems that include the hydrogen gasproducing cathode (as illustrated in FIG. 4A). The voltage savingsin-turn may result in less electricity consumption and less carbondioxide emission for electricity generation. This may result in thegeneration of greener chemicals such as sodium hydroxide, halogentatedhydrocarbons and/or acids, that are formed by the efficient and energysaving methods and systems of the invention. In some embodiments, theelectrochemical cell with ODC has a theoretical voltage savings of morethan 0.5V, or more than 1V, or more than 1.5V, or between 0.5-1.5V, ascompared to the electrochemical cell with no ODC or as compared to theelectrochemical cell with hydrogen gas producing cathode. In someembodiments, this voltage saving is achieved with a cathode electrolytepH of between 7-15, or between 7-14, or between 6-12, or between 7-12,or between 7-10.

The overall cell potential can be determined through the combination ofNernst equations for each half cell reaction:

E=E^(o)−RT ln (Q)/nF

where, E^(o) is the standard reduction potential, R is the universal gasconstant (8.314 J/mol K), T is the absolute temperature, n is the numberof electrons involved in the half cell reaction, F is Faraday's constant(96485 J/V mol), and Q is the reaction quotient so that:

E_(total)=E_(anode)−E_(cathode)

When metal in the lower oxidation state is oxidized to metal in thehigher oxidation state at the anode as follows:

Cu⁺→Cu²⁺+2e ⁻

E_(anode) based on varying concentration of copper II species may bebetween 0.159-0.75V.

When water is reduced to hydroxide ions and hydrogen gas at the cathode(as illustrated in FIG. 4A) as follows:

2H₂O+2e ⁻=H₂+2OH⁻,

E_(cathode)=−0.059 pH_(c), where pH_(c) is the pH of the cathodeelectrolyte=14

E_(cathode)=−0.83

E_(total) then is between 0.989 to 1.53, depending on the concentrationof copper ions in the anode electrolyte.

When water is reduced to hydroxide ions at ODC (as illustrated in FIG.5A) as follows:

2H₂O+O₂+4e ⁻→4OH⁻

E_(cathode)=1.224−0.059 pH_(c), where pH_(c)=14

E_(cathode)=0.4V

E_(total) then is between −0.241 to 0.3V depending on the concentrationof copper ions in the anode electrolyte.

Therefore, the use of ODC in the cathode chamber brings the theoreticalvoltage savings in the cathode chamber or the theoretical voltagesavings in the cell of about 1.5V or between 0.5-2V or between 0.5-1.5Vor between 1-1.5V, as compared to the electrochemical cell with no ODCor as compared to the electrochemical cell with hydrogen gas producingcathode.

Accordingly, in some embodiments, there are provided methods thatinclude contacting an anode with a metal ion in an anode electrolyte;contacting an oxygen depolarizing cathode with a cathode electrolyte;applying a voltage to the anode and the cathode; forming an alkali atthe cathode; converting the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to ahigher oxidation state at the anode; and saving a voltage of more than0.5V or between 0.5-1.5V as compared to the hydrogen gas producingcathode or as compared to the cell with no ODC. In some embodiments,there are provided systems that include an anode chamber comprising ananode in contact with a metal ion in an anode electrolyte, wherein theanode is configured to convert the metal ion from a lower oxidationstate to a higher oxidation state; and a cathode chamber comprising anoxygen depolarizing cathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte,wherein the cathode is configured to produce an alkali, wherein thesystem provides a voltage savings of more than 0.5V or between 0.5-1.5Vas compared to the system with the hydrogen gas producing cathode or ascompared to the system with no ODC. In some embodiments, the voltagesavings is a theoretical voltage saving which may change depending onthe ohmic resistances in the cell.

While the methods and systems containing the gas-diffusion cathode orthe ODC result in voltage savings as compared to methods and systemscontaining the hydrogen gas producing cathode, both the systems i.e.systems containing the ODC and the systems containing hydrogen gasproducing cathode of the invention, show significant voltage savings ascompared to chlor-alkali system conventionally known in the art. Thevoltage savings in-turn may result in less electricity consumption andless carbon dioxide emission for electricity generation. This may resultin the generation of greener chemicals such as sodium hydroxide,halogentated hydrocarbons and/or acids, that are formed by the efficientand energy saving methods and systems of the invention. For example, thevoltage savings is beneficial in production of the halogenatedhydrocarbons, such as EDC, which is typically formed by reactingethylene with chlorine gas generated by the high voltage consumingchlor-alkali process. In some embodiments, the electrochemical system ofthe invention (2 or 3-compartment cells with hydrogen gas producingcathode or ODC) has a theoretical voltage savings of more than 0.5V, ormore than 1V, or more than 1.5V, or between 0.5-3V, as compared tochlor-alkali process. In some embodiments, this voltage saving isachieved with a cathode electrolyte pH of between 7-15, or between 7-14,or between 6-12, or between 7-12, or between 7-10.

For example, theoretical E_(anode) in the chlor-alkali process is about1.36V undergoing the reaction as follows:

2Cl⁻→Cl₂+2e ⁻,

Theoretical E_(cathode) in the chlor-alkali process is about −0.83V (atpH>14) undergoing the reaction as follows:

2H₂O+2e ⁻=H₂+2OH⁻

Theoretical E_(total) for the chlor-alkali process then is 2.19V.Theoretical E_(total) for the hydrogen gas producing cathode in thesystem of the invention is between 0.989 to 1.53V and E_(total) for ODCin the system of the invention then is between −0.241 to 0.3V, dependingon the concentration of copper ions in the anode electrolyte. Therefore,the electrochemical systems of the invention bring the theoreticalvoltage savings in the cathode chamber or the theoretical voltagesavings in the cell of greater than 3V or greater than 2V or between0.5-2.5V or between 0.5-2.0V or between 0.5-1.5V or between 0.5-1.0V orbetween 1-1.5V or between 1-2V or between 1-2.5V or between 1.5-2.5V, ascompared to the chlor-alkali system.

In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell may be conditioned with afirst electrolyte and may be operated with a second electrolyte. Forexample, in some embodiments, the electrochemical cell and the AEM, CEMor combination thereof are conditioned with sodium sulfate as theelectrolyte and after the stabilization of the voltage with sodiumsulfate, the cell may be operated with sodium chloride as theelectrolyte. An illustrative example of such stabilization of theelectrochemical cell is described in Example 13 herein. Accordingly, insome embodiments, there are provided methods that include contacting ananode with a first anode electrolyte in an anode chamber; contacting acathode with a cathode electrolyte in a cathode chamber; separating thecathode and the anode by at least one ion exchange membrane;conditioning the ion exchange membrane with the first anode electrolytein the anode chamber; contacting the anode with a second anodeelectrolyte comprising metal ion; oxidizing the metal ion from a loweroxidation state to a higher oxidation state at the anode; and forming analkali, water, and/or hydrogen gas at the cathode. In some embodiments,the first anode electrolyte is sodium sulfate and the second anodeelectrolyte is sodium chloride. In some embodiments, the method furthercomprises contacting the second anode electrolyte comprising metal ionin the higher oxidation state with an unsaturated and/or saturatedhydrocarbon to form halogenated hydrocarbon, or contacting the secondanode electrolyte comprising metal ion in the higher oxidation statewith hydrogen gas to form an acid, or combination of both. In someembodiments, the ion exchange membrane is a cation exchange membrane(CEM), an anion exchange membrane (AEM); or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the cathode in the electrochemical systems of theinvention may be a gas-diffusion cathode that reacts HCl and oxygen gasto form water. In some embodiments, there are provided methods thatinclude contacting an anode with a metal ion in an anode electrolyte;oxidizing the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the anode; and contacting a gas-diffusion cathodewith a cathode electrolyte. In some embodiments, the gas-diffusioncathode is an oxygen depolarized cathode (ODC). In some embodiments, themethod includes reacting HCl and oxygen gas to form water at the ODC. Insome embodiments, there are provided methods that include contacting ananode with an anode electrolyte, oxidizing a metal ion from the loweroxidation state to a higher oxidation state at the anode; and contactinga cathode with a cathode electrolyte wherein the cathode is an oxygendepolarizing cathode that reacts oxygen and HCl to form water. In someembodiments, there are provided methods that include contacting an anodewith a metal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anode chamber; oxidizingthe metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation stateat the anode; contacting a gas-diffusion cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte in a cathode chamber; forming water at the cathode from HCland oxygen gas; and contacting the anode electrolyte comprising themetal ion in the higher oxidation state with an unsaturated and/orsaturated hydrocarbon to form halogenated hydrocarbon, or contacting theanode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in the higher oxidation statewith hydrogen gas to form an acid, or combination of both. In someembodiments, the gas-diffusion cathode does not form a gas. In someembodiments, the method includes an anode that does not form a gas. Insome embodiments, the method includes an anode that does not use a gas.In some embodiments, the method further includes separating the cathodeand the anode by at least one ion exchange membrane. In someembodiments, the ion exchange membrane is a cation exchange membrane(CEM), an anion exchange membrane (AEM); or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, there are provided systems that include an anodechamber comprising an anode in contact with a metal ion in an anodeelectrolyte, wherein the anode is configured to convert or oxidize themetal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state; anda cathode chamber comprising a gas-diffusion cathode in contact with acathode electrolyte, wherein the cathode is configured to produce waterfrom HCl. In some embodiments, the gas-diffusion cathode is an oxygendepolarized cathode (ODC). In some embodiments, there are providedsystems that include an anode chamber comprising an anode in contactwith a metal ion in an anode electrolyte, wherein the anode isconfigured to convert the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to ahigher oxidation state; and a cathode chamber comprising a gas-diffusioncathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte, wherein the cathode isconfigured to produce water from HCl; and a reactor operably connectedto the anode chamber and configured to contact the anode electrolytecomprising the metal ion in the higher oxidation state with anunsaturated and/or saturated hydrocarbon and/or hydrogen gas to form ahalogenated hydrocarbon and acid, respectively. In some embodiments, thesystem is configured to not produce a gas at the gas-diffusion cathode.In some embodiments, the system is configured to not produce a gas atthe anode. In some embodiments, the system is configured to not use agas at the anode. In some embodiments, the system further includes atleast one ion exchange membrane separating the cathode and the anode. Insome embodiments, the ion exchange membrane is a cation exchangemembrane (CEM), an anion exchange membrane (AEM); or combinationthereof.

In some embodiments, as illustrated in FIG. 5B, the combination of thegas diffusion cathode (e.g., ODC) and the anode in the electrochemicalcell may result in the generation of water in the cathode chamber. Insome embodiments, the electrochemical system 500 includes a gasdiffusion cathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte 501 and an anodein contact with an anode electrolyte 502. Following are the reactionsthat may take place at the anode and the cathode.

2H⁺+1/2O₂+2e ⁻→H₂O(cathode)

M^(L+)→M^(H+) +xe ⁻(anode where x=1-3)

For example, 2Fe²⁺→2Fe³⁺+2e ⁻(anode)

2Cr²⁺→2Cr³⁺+2e ⁻(anode)

Sn²⁺→Sn⁴⁺+2e ⁻(anode)

2Cu⁺→2Cu²⁺+2e ⁻(anode)

The M^(H+) formed at the anode combines with chloride ions to form metalchloride MCl_(n) such as, but not limited to, FeCl₃, CrCl₃, SnCl₄, orCuCl₂ etc. The oxygen at the cathode may be atmospheric air or anycommercial available source of oxygen. It is to be understood that oneAEM in FIG. 5B is for illustration purposes only and the system can bedesigned to have CEM with HCl delivered into the anode electrolyte andthe hydrogen ions passing through the CEM to the cathode electrolyte. Insome embodiments, the system illustrated in FIG. 5B may contain both AEMand CEM with the middle chamber containing a chloride salt.

In some embodiments, the electrochemical systems of the invention may becombined with other electrochemical cells for an efficient and lowenergy intensive system. For example, in some embodiments, asillustrated in FIG. 5C, the electrochemical system 400 of FIG. 4B may becombined with another electrochemical cell such that the hydrochloricacid formed in the other electrochemical cell is administered to thecathode electrolyte of the system 400. The electrochemical system 400may be replaced with system 100A (FIG. 1A), 100B (FIG. 1B), 200 (FIG.2), 400 (FIG. 4A), 500 (FIGS. 5A and 5B), except that the cathodecompartment is modified to receive HCl from another electrochemical celland oxidize it to form hydrogen gas. The chloride ions migrate from thecathode electrolyte to anode electrolyte through the AEM. This mayresult in an overall improvement in the voltage of the system, e.g., thetheoretical cell voltage of the system may be between 0.1-0.7V. In someembodiments, when the cathode is an ODC, the theoretical cell voltagemay be between −0.5 to −1V. The electrochemical cells producing HCl inthe anode electrolyte have been described in U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 12/503,557, filed Jul. 15, 2009, which is incorporated hereinby reference in its entirety. Other sources of HCl are well known in theart. An example of HCl source from VCM production process and itsintegration into the electrochemical system of the invention, isillustrated in FIG. 8B below.

In some embodiments of the methods and systems described herein, a sizeexclusion membrane (SEM) is used in conjunction with or in place ofanion exchange membrane (AEM). In some embodiments, the AEM is surfacecoated with a layer of SEM. In some embodiments, the SEM is bonded orpressed against the AEM. The use of SEM with or in place of AEM canprevent migration of the metal ion or ligand attached metal ion from theanolyte to the catholyte owing to the large size of the metal ion aloneor attached to the ligand. This can further prevent fouling of CEM orcontamination of the catholyte with the metal ion. It is to beunderstood that this use of SEM in combination with or in place of AEMwill still facilitate migration of chloride ions from the thirdelectrolyte into the anolyte. In some embodiments, there are providedmethods that include contacting an anode with an anode electrolyte;oxidizing a metal ion from the lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the anode; contacting a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte; and preventing migration of the metal ions from the anodeelectrolyte to the cathode electrolyte by using a size exclusionmembrane. In some embodiments, this method further includes a cathodethat produces alkali in the cathode electrolyte, or an oxygendepolarized cathode that produces alkali in the cathode electrolyte oran oxygen depolarized cathode that produces water in the cathodeelectrolyte or a cathode that produces hydrogen gas. In someembodiments, this method further includes contacting the anodeelectrolyte comprising the metal ion in the higher oxidation state withan unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon to form halogenated hydrocarbon,or contacting the anode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in thehigher oxidation state with hydrogen gas to form an acid, or combinationof both. In some embodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon in suchmethods is ethylene. In some embodiments, the metal ion in such methodsis copper chloride. In some embodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon insuch methods is ethylene and the metal ion is copper chloride. Anexample of halogenated hydrocarbon that can be formed from ethylene isethylene dichloride, EDC.

In some embodiments, there are provided systems that include an anode incontact with an anode electrolyte and configured to oxidize a metal ionfrom the lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state; a cathode incontact with a cathode electrolyte; and a size exclusion membranedisposed between the anode and the cathode and configured to preventmigration of the metal ions from the anode electrolyte to the cathodeelectrolyte. In some embodiments, this system further includes a cathodethat is configured to produce alkali in the cathode electrolyte orproduce water in the cathode electrolyte or produce hydrogen gas. Insome embodiments, this system further includes an oxygen depolarizedcathode that is configured to produce alkali and/or water in the cathodeelectrolyte. In some embodiments, this system further includes ahydrogen gas producing cathode. In some embodiments, this system furtherincludes a reactor operably connected to the anode chamber andconfigured to contact the anode electrolyte comprising the metal ion inthe higher oxidation state with an unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbonto form halogenated hydrocarbon, or to contact the anode electrolytecomprising the metal ion in the higher oxidation state with hydrogen gasto form an acid, or combination of both. In some embodiments, theunsaturated hydrocarbon in such systems is ethylene. In someembodiments, the metal ion in such systems is copper chloride. In someembodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon in such systems is ethylene andthe metal ion is copper chloride. An example of halogenated hydrocarbonthat can be formed from ethylene is EDC.

In some embodiments, the size exclusion membrane as defined herein aboveand herein, fully prevents the migration of the metal ion to the cathodechamber or the middle chamber with the third electrolyte or reduces themigration by 100%; or by 99%; or by 95% or by 75%; or by 50%; or by 25%;or between 25-50%; or between 50-75%; or between 50-95%.

In some embodiments, the AEM used in the methods and systems of theinvention, is resistant to the organic compounds (such as ligands orhydrocarbons) such that AEM does not interact with the organics and/orthe AEM does not react or absorb metal ions. This can be achieved, forexample only, by using a polymer that does not contain a free radical oranion available for reaction with organics or with metal ions. Forexample only, a fully quarternized amine containing polymer may be usedas an AEM. Other examples of AEM have been described herein.

In some embodiments of the methods and systems described herein, aturbulence promoter is used in the anode compartment to improve masstransfer at the anode. For example, as the current density increases inthe electrochemical cell, the mass transfer controlled reaction rate atthe anode is achieved. The laminar flow of the anolyte may causeresistance and diffusion issues. In order to improve the mass transferat the anode and thereby reduce the voltage of the cell, a turbulencepromoter may be used in the anode compartment. A “turbulence promoter”as used herein includes a component in the anode compartment of theelectrochemical cell that provides turbulence. In some embodiments, theturbulence promoter may be provided at the back of the anode, i.e.between the anode and the wall of the electrochemical cell and/or insome embodiments, the turbulence promoter may be provided between theanode and the anion exchange membrane. For example only, theelectrochemical systems shown in FIG. 1A, FIG. 1B, FIG. 2, FIG. 4A, FIG.4B, FIG. 5A, 5B, FIG. 5C, FIG. 6, FIG. 8A, FIG. 9, and FIG. 12, may havea turbulence promoter between the anode and the ion exchange membranesuch as the anion exchange membrane and/or have the turbulence promoterbetween the anode and the outer wall of the cell.

An example of the turbulence promoter is bubbling of the gas in theanode compartment. The gas can be any inert gas that does not react withthe constituents of the anolyte. For example, the gas includes, but notlimited to, air, nitrogen, argon, and the like. The bubbling of the gasat the anode can stir up the anode electrolyte and improve the masstransfer at the anode. The improved mass transfer can result in thereduced voltage of the cell. Other examples of the turbulence promoterinclude, but not limited to, incorporating a carbon cloth next to theanode, incorporating a carbon/graphite felt next to the anode, anexpanded plastic next to the anode, a fishing net next to the anode, acombination of the foregoing, and the like.

In some embodiments, there are provided methods that include contactingan anode with an anode electrolyte; oxidizing a metal ion from the loweroxidation state to a higher oxidation state at the anode; contacting acathode with a cathode electrolyte; and providing turbulence in theanode electrolyte by using a turbulence promoter. In some embodiments,the foregoing method further includes reducing the voltage of the cellby between 50-200 mV or between 100-200 mV by providing the turbulence.In some embodiments, there are provided methods that include contactingan anode with an anode electrolyte; oxidizing a metal ion from the loweroxidation state to a higher oxidation state at the anode; contacting acathode with a cathode electrolyte; and providing turbulence in theanode electrolyte by passing gas bubbles at the anode. Examples of thegas include, but not limited to, air, nitrogen, argon, and the like. Insome embodiments, the foregoing method further includes reducing thevoltage of the cell by between 50-200 mV or between 100-200 mV byproviding the turbulence (see Example 3).

In some embodiments, the foregoing methods further include a cathodethat produces alkali in the cathode electrolyte, or an oxygendepolarized cathode that produces alkali in the cathode electrolyte oran oxygen depolarized cathode that produces water in the cathodeelectrolyte or a cathode that produces hydrogen gas. In someembodiments, the foregoing methods further include contacting the anodeelectrolyte comprising the metal ion in the higher oxidation state withan unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon to form halogenated hydrocarbon,or contacting the anode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in thehigher oxidation state with hydrogen gas to form an acid, or combinationof both. In some embodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon in suchmethods is ethylene. In some embodiments, the metal ion in such methodsis copper chloride. In some embodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon insuch methods is ethylene and the metal ion is copper chloride. Anexample of halogenated hydrocarbon that can be formed from ethylene isethylene dichloride, EDC. In some embodiments, the ligands as describedherein may be used in the foregoing methods.

In some embodiments, there are provided systems that include an anode incontact with an anode electrolyte and configured to oxidize a metal ionfrom the lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state; a cathode incontact with a cathode electrolyte; and a turbulence promoter disposedaround the anode and configured to provide turbulence in the anodeelectrolyte. In some embodiments, there are provided systems thatinclude an anode in contact with an anode electrolyte and configured tooxidize a metal ion from the lower oxidation state to a higher oxidationstate; a cathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte; and a gasbubbler disposed around the anode and configured to bubble gas andprovide turbulence in the anode electrolyte. Examples of the gasinclude, but not limited to, air, nitrogen, argon, and the like. The gasbubbler may be any means of bubbling gas into the anode compartment thatare known in the art.

In some embodiments, the foregoing systems further include a cathodethat is configured to produce alkali in the cathode electrolyte orproduce water in the cathode electrolyte or produce hydrogen gas. Insome embodiments, the foregoing systems further include an oxygendepolarized cathode that is configured to produce alkali and/or water inthe cathode electrolyte. In some embodiments, the foregoing systemsfurther include a hydrogen gas producing cathode. In some embodiments,the foregoing systems further include a reactor operably connected tothe anode chamber and configured to contact the anode electrolytecomprising the metal ion in the higher oxidation state with anunsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon to form halogenated hydrocarbon, orto contact the anode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in the higheroxidation state with hydrogen gas to form an acid, or combination ofboth. In some embodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon in such systemsis ethylene. In some embodiments, the metal ion in such systems iscopper chloride. In some embodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon insuch systems is ethylene and the metal ion is copper chloride. Anexample of halogenated hydrocarbon that can be formed from ethylene isEDC.

In some embodiments, the metal formed with a higher oxidation state inthe anode electrolyte is subjected to reactions that may result incorresponding oxidized products (halogenated hydrocarbon and/or acid) aswell as the metal in the reduced lower oxidation state. The metal ion inthe lower oxidation state may then be re-circulated back to theelectrochemical system for the generation of the metal ion in the higheroxidation state. Such reactions to regenerate the metal ion in the loweroxidation state from the metal ion in the higher oxidation state,include, but are not limited to, reactions with hydrogen gas orhydrocarbons as described herein.

Reaction with Hydrogen Gas, Unsaturated Hydrocarbon, and SaturatedHydrocarbon

In some embodiments, there are provided methods that include contactingan anode with a metal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anode chamber;converting or oxidizing the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to ahigher oxidation state at the anode; and treating the metal ion in thehigher oxidation state with hydrogen gas. In some embodiments of themethod, the method includes contacting a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte and forming an alkali in the cathode electrolyte. In someembodiments of the method, the method includes contacting a cathode witha cathode electrolyte and forming an alkali and/or hydrogen gas at thecathode. In some embodiments of the method, the method includescontacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte and forming an alkali,water, and/or hydrogen gas at the cathode. In some embodiments of themethod, the method includes contacting a gas-diffusion cathode with acathode electrolyte and forming an alkali at the cathode. In someembodiments, there are provided methods that include contacting an anodewith a metal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anode chamber; convertingthe metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation stateat the anode; contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte; formingan alkali, water or hydrogen gas at the cathode; and treating the metalion in the higher oxidation state in the anode electrolyte with hydrogengas from the cathode. In some embodiments, there are provided methodsthat include contacting an anode with a metal ion in an anodeelectrolyte in an anode chamber; converting the metal ion from a loweroxidation state to a higher oxidation state at the anode; contacting anoxygen depolarized cathode with a cathode electrolyte; forming an alkalior water at the cathode; and treating the metal ion in the higheroxidation state in the anode electrolyte with hydrogen gas. In someembodiments, there are provided methods that include contacting an anodewith a metal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anode chamber; convertingthe metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation stateat the anode; contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte; formingwater or hydrogen gas at the cathode; and treating the metal ion in thehigher oxidation state in the anode electrolyte with hydrogen gas. Insome embodiments, the treatment of the hydrogen gas with the metal ionin the higher oxidation state may be inside the cathode chamber oroutside the cathode chamber. In some embodiments, the above recitedmethods include forming hydrogen chloride, hydrochloric acid, hydrogenbromide, hydrobromic acid, hydrogen iodide, hydroiodic acid and/orsulfuric acid by treating the metal ion in the higher oxidation statewith the hydrogen gas. In some embodiments, the treatment of the metalion in the higher oxidation state with the hydrogen gas results informing hydrogen chloride, hydrochloric acid, hydrogen bromide,hydrobromic acid, hydrogen iodide, hydroiodic acid, and/or sulfuric acidand the metal ion in the lower oxidation state. In some embodiments, themetal ion in the lower oxidation state is re-circulated back to theanode chamber. In some embodiments, the mixture of the metal ion in thelower oxidation state and the acid is subjected to acid retardationtechniques to separate the metal ion in the lower oxidation state fromthe acid before the metal ion in the lower oxidation state isre-circulated back to the anode chamber.

In some embodiments of the above recited methods, the method does notproduce chlorine gas at the anode.

In some embodiments, there are provided systems that include an anodechamber including an anode in contact with a metal ion in an anodeelectrolyte wherein the anode is configured to convert the metal ionfrom a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state; and a reactoroperably connected to the anode chamber and configured to react theanode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in the higher oxidation statewith hydrogen gas. In some embodiments of the systems, the systemincludes a cathode chamber including a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte wherein the cathode is configured to form an alkali in thecathode electrolyte. In some embodiments of the systems, the systemincludes a cathode chamber including a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte wherein the cathode is configured to form hydrogen gas inthe cathode electrolyte. In some embodiments of the systems, the systemincludes a cathode chamber including a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte wherein the cathode is configured to form an alkali andhydrogen gas in the cathode electrolyte. In some embodiments of thesystems, the system includes a gas-diffusion cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte wherein the cathode is configured to form an alkali in thecathode electrolyte. In some embodiments of the systems, the systemincludes a gas-diffusion cathode with a cathode electrolyte wherein thecathode is configured to form water in the cathode electrolyte. In someembodiments, there are provided systems that include an anode chamberincluding an anode with a metal ion in an anode electrolyte wherein theanode is configured to convert the metal ion from a lower oxidationstate to a higher oxidation state in the anode chamber; a cathodechamber including a cathode with a cathode electrolyte wherein thecathode is configured to form an alkali and/or hydrogen gas in thecathode electrolyte; and a reactor operably connected to the anodechamber and configured to react the anode electrolyte comprising themetal ion in the higher oxidation state with the hydrogen gas from thecathode. In some embodiments, the reactor is operably connected to theanode chamber and configured to react the anode electrolyte comprisingthe metal ion in the higher oxidation state with the hydrogen gas fromthe cathode of the same electrochemical cell or with the external sourceof hydrogen gas. In some embodiments, the treatment of the hydrogen gaswith the metal ion in the higher oxidation state may be inside thecathode chamber or outside the cathode chamber. In some embodiments, theabove recited systems include forming hydrogen chloride, hydrochloricacid, hydrogen bromide, hydrobromic acid, hydrogen iodide, hydroiodicacid, and/or sulfuric acid by reacting or treating the metal ion in thehigher oxidation state with the hydrogen gas. In some embodiments, thetreatment of the metal ion in the higher oxidation state with thehydrogen gas results in forming hydrogen chloride, hydrochloric acid,hydrogen bromide, hydrobromic acid, hydrogen iodide, hydroiodic acid,and/or sulfuric acid and the metal ion in the lower oxidation state. Insome embodiments, the system is configured to form the metal ion in thelower oxidation state from the metal ion in the higher oxidation statewith the hydrogen gas and re-circulate the metal ion in the loweroxidation state back to the anode chamber. In some embodiments, thesystem is configured to separate the metal ion in the lower oxidationstate from the acid using acid retardation techniques such as, but notlimited to, ion exchange resin, size exclusion membranes, and aciddialysis, etc.

In some embodiments of the above recited systems, the anode in thesystem is configured to not produce chlorine gas.

In some embodiments, the metal formed with a higher oxidation state inthe anode electrolyte of the electrochemical systems of FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2,3A, 3B, 4A, 4B, 5A and 5B may be reacted with hydrogen gas to fromcorresponding products based on the anion attached to the metal. Forexample, the metal chloride, metal bromide, metal iodide, or metalsulfate may result in corresponding hydrogen chloride, hydrochloricacid, hydrogen bromide, hydrobromic acid, hydrogen iodide, hydroiodicacid, or sulfuric acid, respectively, after reacting the hydrogen gaswith the metal halide or metal sulfate. In some embodiments, thehydrogen gas is from an external source. In some embodiments, such asillustrated in FIG. 4A or 4B, the hydrogen gas reacted with the metalhalide or metal sulfate, is the hydrogen gas formed at the cathode. Insome embodiments, the hydrogen gas is obtained from a combination of theexternal source and the hydrogen gas formed at the cathode. In someembodiments, the reaction of metal halide or metal sulfate with thehydrogen gas results in the generation of the above described productsas well as the metal halide or metal sulfate in the lower oxidationstate. The metal ion in the lower oxidation state may then bere-circulated back to the electrochemical system for the generation ofthe metal ion in the higher oxidation state.

An example of the electrochemical system of FIG. 5A is as illustrated inFIG. 6. It is to be understood that the system 600 of FIG. 6 is forillustration purposes only and other metal ions with differentoxidations states (e.g., chromium, tin etc.) and other electrochemicalsystems forming products other than alkali such as, water (as in FIG.5B) or hydrogen gas (as in FIG. 4A or 4B), in the cathode chamber, areequally applicable to the system. In some embodiments, as illustrated inFIG. 6, the electrochemical system 600 includes an oxygen depolarizedcathode that produces hydroxide ions from water and oxygen. The system600 also includes an anode that converts metal ions from 2+ oxidationstate to 3+ oxidation state (or from 2+ oxidation state to 4+ oxidationstate, such as Sn, etc.). The M³⁺ ions combine with chloride ions toform MCl₃. The metal chloride MCl₃ is then reacted with hydrogen gas toundergo reduction of the metal ion to lower oxidation state to formMCl₂. The MCl₂ is then re-circulated back to the anode chamber forconversion to MCl₃. Hydrochloric acid is generated in the process whichmay be used for commercial purposes or may be utilized in otherprocesses as described herein. In some embodiments, the HCl produced bythis method can be used for the dissolution of minerals to generatedivalent cations that can be used in carbonate precipitation processes,as described herein. In some embodiments, the metal halide or metalsulfate in FIG. 6 may be reacted with the unsaturated or saturatedhydrocarbon to form halohydrocarbon or sulfohydrocarbon, as describedherein (not shown in the figures). In some embodiments, the cathode isnot a gas-diffusion cathode but is a cathode as described in FIG. 4A or4B. In some embodiments, the system 600 may be applied to anyelectrochemical system that produces alkali.

Some examples of the reactors that carry out the reaction of the metalcompound with the hydrogen gas are provided herein. As an example, areactor such as a reaction tower for the reaction of metal ion in thehigher oxidation state (formed as shown in the figures) with hydrogengas is illustrated in FIG. 7A. In some embodiments, as illustrated inFIG. 7A, the anolyte is passed through the reaction tower. The gascontaining hydrogen is also delivered to the reaction tower. The excessof hydrogen gas may vent from the reaction tower which may be collectedand transferred back to the reaction tower. Inside the reaction tower,the anolyte containing metal ions in higher oxidation state (illustratedas FeCl₃) may react with the hydrogen gas to form HCl and metal ions inlower oxidation state, i.e., reduced form illustrated as FeCl₂. Thereaction tower may optionally contain activated charcoal or carbon oralternatively, the activated carbon may be present outside the reactiontower. The reaction of the metal ion with hydrogen gas may take place onthe activated carbon from which the reduced anolyte may be regeneratedor the activated carbon may simply act as a filter for removingimpurities from the gases. The reduced anolyte containing HCl and themetal ions in lower oxidation state may be subjected to acid recoveryusing separation techniques or acid retardation techniques known in theart including, but not limited to, ion exchange resin, size exclusionmembranes, and acid dialysis, etc. to separate HCl from the anolyte. Insome embodiments, the ligands, described herein, may facilitate theseparation of the metal ion from the acid solution due to the large sizeof the ligand attached to the metal ion. The anolyte containing themetal ion in the lower oxidation state may be re-circulated back to theelectrochemical cell and HCl may be collected.

As another example of the reactor, the reaction of metal ion in thehigher oxidation state (formed as shown in the figures) with hydrogengas is also illustrated in FIG. 7B. As illustrated in FIG. 7B, theanolyte from the anode chamber containing the metal ions in the higheroxidation state, such as, but not limited to, Fe³⁺, Sn⁴⁺, Cr³⁺, etc. maybe used to react with hydrogen gas to form HCl or may be used to scrubthe SO₂ containing gas to form clean gas or sulfuric acid. In someembodiments, it is contemplated that NOx gases may be reacted with themetal ions in the higher oxidation state to form nitric acid. In someembodiments, as illustrated in FIG. 7B, the anolyte is passed through areaction tower. The gas containing hydrogen, SO₂, and/or NOx is alsodelivered to the reaction tower. The excess of hydrogen gas may ventfrom the reaction tower which may be collected and transferred back tothe reaction tower. The excess of SO₂ may be passed through a scrubberbefore releasing the cleaner gas to the atmosphere. Inside the reactiontower, the anolyte containing metal ions in higher oxidation state mayreact with the hydrogen gas and/or SO₂ to form HCl and/or H₂SO₄ andmetal ions in lower oxidation state, i.e., reduced form. The reactiontower may optionally contain activated charcoal or carbon oralternatively, the activated carbon may be present outside the reactiontower. The reaction of the metal ion with hydrogen gas or SO₂ gas maytake place on the activated carbon from which the reduced anolyte may beregenerated or the activated carbon may simply act as a filter forremoving impurities from the gases. The reduced anolyte containing HCland/or H₂SO₄ and the metal ions in lower oxidation state may besubjected to acid recovery using separation techniques known in the artincluding, but not limited to, ion exchange resin, size exclusionmembranes, and acid dialysis, etc. to separate HCl and/or H₂SO₄ from theanolyte. In some embodiments, the ligands, described herein, mayfacilitate the separation of the metal ion from the acid solution due tothe large size of the ligand attached to the metal ion. The anolytecontaining the metal ion in the lower oxidation state may bere-circulated back to the electrochemical cell and HCl and/or H₂SO₄ maybe collected. In some embodiments, the reaction inside the reactiontower may take place from 1-10 hr at a temperature of 50-100° C.

An example of an ion exchange resin to separate out the HCl from themetal containing anolyte is as illustrated in FIG. 7C. As illustrated inFIG. 7C, the separation process may include a preferentialadsorption/absorption of a mineral acid to an anion exchange resin. Inthe first step, the anolyte containing HCl and/or H₂SO₄ is passedthrough the ion exchange resin which adsorbs HCl and/or H₂SO₄ and thenseparates out the anolyte. The HCl and/or H₂SO₄ can be regenerated backfrom the resin by washing the resin with water. Diffusion dialysis canbe another method for separating acid from the anolyte. In someembodiments, the ligands described herein, may facilitate the separationof the metal ion from the acid solution due to the large size of theligand attached to the metal ion.

In some embodiments, the hydrochloric acid generated in the process ispartially or fully used to dissolve scrap iron to form FeCl₂ andhydrogen gas. The FeCl₂ generated in the process may be re-circulatedback to the anode chamber for conversion to FeCl₃. In some embodiments,the hydrogen gas may be used in the hydrogen fuel cell. The fuel cell inturn can be used to generate electricity to power the electrochemicaldescribed herein. In some embodiments, the hydrogen gas is transferredto the electrochemical systems described in U.S. Provisional ApplicationNo. 61/477,097, which is incorporated herein by reference in itsentirety.

In some embodiments, the hydrochloric acid with or without the metal ionin the lower oxidation state is subjected to another electrochemicalprocess to generate hydrogen gas and the metal ion in the higheroxidation state. Such a system is as illustrated in FIG. 11.

In some embodiments, the hydrochloric acid generated in the process isused to generate ethylene dichloride as illustrated below:

2CuCl(aq)+2HCl(aq)+1/2O₂(g)→2CuCl₂(aq)+H₂O(l)

C₂H₄(g)+2CuCl₂(aq)→2CuCl(aq)+C₂H₄Cl₂(l)

In some embodiments, the metal formed with a higher oxidation state inthe anode electrolyte of the electrochemical systems of FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2,3A, 3B, 4A, 4B, 5A, 5B, and 5C may be reacted with unsaturatedhydrocarbons to from corresponding halohydrocarbons or sulfohydrocarbonsbased on the anion attached to the metal. For example, the metalchloride, metal bromide, metal iodide, or metal sulfate etc. may resultin corresponding chlorohydrocarbons, bromohydrocarbons,iodohydrocarbons, or sulfohydrocarbons, after the reaction of theunsaturated hydrocarbons with the metal halide or metal sulfate. In someembodiments, the reaction of metal halide or metal sulfate with theunsaturated hydrocarbons results in the generation of the abovedescribed products as well as the metal halide or metal sulfate in thelower oxidation state. The metal ion in the lower oxidation state maythen be re-circulated back to the electrochemical system for thegeneration of the metal ion in the higher oxidation state.

The “unsaturated hydrocarbon” as used herein, includes a hydrocarbonwith unsaturated carbon or hydrocarbon with at least one double and/orat least one triple bond between adjacent carbon atoms. The unsaturatedhydrocarbon may be linear, branched, or cyclic (aromatic ornon-aromatic). For example, the hydrocarbon may be olefinic, acetylenic,non-aromatic such as cyclohexene, aromatic group or a substitutedunsaturated hydrocarbon such as, but not limited to, halogenatedunsaturated hydrocarbon. The hydrocarbons with at least one double bondmay be called olefins or alkenes and may have a general formula of anunsubstituted alkene as C_(n)H_(2n) where n is 2-20 or 2-10 or 2-8, or2-5. In some embodiments, one or more hydrogens on the alkene may befurther substituted with other functional groups such as but not limitedto, halogen (including chloro, bromo, iodo, and fluoro), carboxylic acid(—COOH), hydroxyl (—OH), amines, etc. The unsaturated hydrocarbonsinclude all the isomeric forms of unsaturation, such as, but not limitedto, cis and trans isomers, E and Z isomers, positional isomers etc.

In some embodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon in the methods andsystems provided herein, is of formula I which after halogenation orsulfonation (including sulfation) results in the compound of formula II:

wherein, n is 2-10; m is 0-5; and q is 1-5;

R is independently selected from hydrogen, halogen, —COOR′, —OH, and—NR′(R″), where R′ and R″ are independently selected from hydrogen,alkyl, and substituted alkyl; and

X is a halogen selected from fluoro, chloro, bromo, and iodo; —SO₃H; or—OSO₂OH.

It is to be understood that R substitutent(s) can be on one carbon atomor on more than 1 carbon atom depending on the number of R and carbonatoms. For example only, when n is 3 and m is 2, the substituents R canbe on the same carbon atom or on two different carbon atoms.

In some embodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon in the methods andsystems provided herein, is of formula I which after halogenationresults in the compound of formula II, wherein, n is 2-10; m is 0-5; andq is 1-5; R is independently selected from hydrogen, halogen, —COOR′,—OH, and —NR′(R″), where R′ and R″ are independently selected fromhydrogen, alkyl, and substituted alkyl; and X is a halogen selected fromchloro, bromo, and iodo.

In some embodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon in the methods andsystems provided herein, is of formula I which after halogenationresults in the compound of formula II, wherein, n is 2-5; m is 0-3; andq is 1-4; R is independently selected from hydrogen, halogen, —COOR′,—OH, and —NR′(R″), where R′ and R″ are independently selected fromhydrogen and alkyl; and X is a halogen selected from chloro and bromo.

In some embodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon in the methods andsystems provided herein, is of formula I which after halogenationresults in the compound of formula II, wherein, n is 2-5; m is 0-3; andq is 1-4; R is independently selected from hydrogen, halogen, and —OH,and X is a halogen selected from chloro and bromo.

It is to be understood that when m is more than 1, the substituents Rcan be on the same carbon atom or on a different carbon atoms.Similarly, it is to be understood that when q is more than 1, thesubstituents X can be on the same carbon atom or on different carbonatoms.

In some embodiments for the above described embodiments of formula I, mis 0 and q is 1-2. In such embodiments, X is chloro.

Examples of substituted or unsubstituted alkenes, including formula I,include, but not limited to, ethylene, chloro ethylene, bromo ethylene,iodo ethylene, propylene, chloro propylene, hydroxyl propylene,1-butylene, 2-butylene (cis or trans), isobutylene, 1,3-butadiene,pentylene, hexene, cyclopropylene, cyclobutylene, cyclohexene, etc. Thehydrocarbons with at least one triple bond maybe called alkynes and mayhave a general formula of an unsubstituted alkyne as C_(n)H_(2n−2) wheren is 2-10 or 2-8, or 2-5. In some embodiments, one or more hydrogens onthe alkyne may be further substituted with other functional groups suchas but not limited to, halogen, carboxylic acid, hydroxyl, etc.

In some embodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon in the methods andsystems provided herein, is of formula IA which after halogenation orsulfonation (including sulfation) results in the compound of formulaIIA:

wherein, n is 2-10; m is 0-5; and q is 1-5;

R is independently selected from hydrogen, halogen, —COOR′, —OH, and—NR′(R″), where R′ and R″ are independently selected from hydrogen,alkyl, and substituted alkyl; and

X is a halogen selected from fluoro, chloro, bromo, and iodo; —SO₃H; or—OSO₂OH.

Examples of substituted or unsubstituted alkynes include, but notlimited to, acetylene, propyne, chloro propyne, bromo propyne, butyne,pentyne, hexyne, etc.

It is to be understood that R substitutent(s) can be on one carbon atomor on more than 1 carbon atom depending on the number of R and carbonatoms. For example only, when n is 3 and m is 2, the substituents R canbe on the same carbon atom or on two different carbon atoms.

In some embodiments, there are provided methods that include contactingan anode with a metal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anode chamber;converting or oxidizing the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to ahigher oxidation state at the anode; and treating the anode electrolytecomprising the metal ion in the higher oxidation state with anunsaturated hydrocarbon. In some embodiments of the method, the methodincludes contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte and forming analkali at the cathode. In some embodiments of the method, the methodincludes contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte and forming analkali, water, and/or hydrogen gas at the cathode. In some embodimentsof the method, the method includes contacting a gas-diffusion cathodewith a cathode electrolyte and forming an alkali or water at thecathode. In some embodiments, there are provided methods that includecontacting an anode with a metal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anodechamber; converting the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to ahigher oxidation state at the anode; contacting a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte; forming an alkali, water, and/or hydrogen gas at thecathode; and treating the anode electrolyte comprising the metal ion inthe higher oxidation state with an unsaturated hydrocarbon. In someembodiments, there are provided methods that include contacting an anodewith a metal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anode chamber; convertingthe metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation stateat the anode; contacting a gas-diffusion cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte; forming an alkali or water at the cathode; and treating theanode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in the higher oxidation statewith an unsaturated hydrocarbon. In some embodiments, there are providedmethods that include contacting an anode with a metal ion in an anodeelectrolyte in an anode chamber; converting the metal ion from a loweroxidation state to a higher oxidation state at the anode; contacting agas-diffusion cathode with a cathode electrolyte; forming an alkali atthe cathode; and treating the anode electrolyte comprising the metal ionin the higher oxidation state with an unsaturated hydrocarbon. In someembodiments, the treatment of the unsaturated hydrocarbon with the metalion in the higher oxidation state may be inside the cathode chamber oroutside the cathode chamber. In some embodiments, the treatment of themetal ion in the higher oxidation state with the unsaturated hydrocarbonresults in chloro, bromo, iodo, or sulfohydrocarbons and the metal ionin the lower oxidation state. In some embodiments, the metal ion in thelower oxidation state is re-circulated back to the anode chamber.

In some embodiments of the above described methods, the anode does notproduce chlorine gas. In some embodiments of the above describedmethods, the treatment of the unsaturated hydrocarbon with the metal ionin the higher oxidation state does not require oxygen gas and/orchlorine gas. In some embodiments of the above described methods, theanode does not produce chlorine gas and the treatment of the unsaturatedhydrocarbon with the metal ion in the higher oxidation state does notrequire oxygen gas and/or chlorine gas.

In some embodiments, there are provided systems that include an anodechamber including an anode in contact with a metal ion in an anodeelectrolyte wherein the anode is configured to convert the metal ionfrom a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state; and a reactoroperably connected to the anode chamber and configured to react theanode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in the higher oxidation statewith unsaturated hydrocarbon. In some embodiments of the systems, thesystem includes a cathode chamber including a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte wherein the cathode is configured to form an alkali, water,and/or hydrogen gas in the cathode electrolyte. In some embodiments ofthe systems, the system includes a cathode chamber including a cathodewith a cathode electrolyte wherein the cathode is configured to form analkali and/or hydrogen gas in the cathode electrolyte. In someembodiments of the systems, the system includes a gas-diffusion cathodewith a cathode electrolyte wherein the cathode is configured to form analkali or water in the cathode electrolyte. In some embodiments, thereare provided systems that include an anode chamber including an anodewith a metal ion in an anode electrolyte wherein the anode is configuredto convert the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state in the anode chamber; a cathode chamber including acathode with a cathode electrolyte wherein the cathode is configured toform an alkali, water or hydrogen gas in the cathode electrolyte; and areactor operably connected to the anode chamber and configured to reactthe anode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in the higher oxidationstate with an unsaturated hydrocarbon. In some embodiments, there areprovided systems that include an anode chamber including an anode with ametal ion in an anode electrolyte wherein the anode is configured toconvert the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidationstate in the anode chamber; a cathode chamber including a gas-diffusioncathode with a cathode electrolyte wherein the cathode is configured toform an alkali in the cathode electrolyte; and a reactor operablyconnected to the anode chamber and configured to react the anodeelectrolyte comprising the metal ion in the higher oxidation state withan unsaturated hydrocarbon. In some embodiments, the treatment of theunsaturated hydrocarbon with the metal ion in the higher oxidation statemay be inside the cathode chamber or outside the cathode chamber. Insome embodiments, the treatment of the metal ion in the higher oxidationstate with the unsaturated hydrocarbon results in chloro, bromo, iodo,or sulfohydrocarbons and the metal ion in the lower oxidation state. Insome embodiments, the system is configured to form the metal ion in thelower oxidation state from the metal ion in the higher oxidation statewith the unsaturated hydrocarbon and re-circulate the metal ion in thelower oxidation state back to the anode chamber.

In some embodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon in the aforementionedmethod and system embodiments and as described herein is of formula I oris C2-C10 alkene or C2-C5 alkene. In some embodiments of the methods andsystems described as above, the unsaturated hydrocarbon in theaforementioned embodiments and as described herein is, ethylene. Thehalohydrocarbon formed from such unsaturated hydrocarbon is of formulaII (as described herein), e.g., ethylene dichloride, chloroethanol,butyl chloride, dichlorobutane, chlorobutanol, etc. In some embodimentsof the methods and systems described as above, the metal ion is a metalion described herein, such as, but not limited to, copper, iron, tin, orchromium.

In some embodiments of the above described systems, the anode isconfigured to not produce chlorine gas. In some embodiments of the abovedescribed systems, the reactor configured to react the unsaturatedhydrocarbon with the metal ion in the higher oxidation state, isconfigured to not require oxygen gas and/or chlorine gas. In someembodiments of the above described methods, the anode is configured tonot produce chlorine gas and the reactor is configured to not requireoxygen gas and/or chlorine gas.

An example of the electrochemical system of FIG. 5A, is as illustratedin FIG. 8A. It is to be understood that the system 800 of FIG. 8A is forillustration purposes only and other metal ions with differentoxidations states, other unsaturated hydrocarbons, and otherelectrochemical systems forming products other than alkali, such aswater or hydrogen gas in the cathode chamber, are equally applicable tothe system. The cathode of FIG. 4A or 4B may also be substituted in FIG.8A. In some embodiments, as illustrated in FIG. 8A, the electrochemicalsystem 800 includes an oxygen depolarized cathode that produceshydroxide ions from water and oxygen. The system 800 also includes ananode that converts metal ions from 1+ oxidation state to 2+ oxidationstate. The Cu²⁺ ions combine with chloride ions to form CuCl₂. The metalchloride CuCl₂ can be then reacted with an unsaturated hydrocarbon, suchas, but not limited to, ethylene to undergo reduction of the metal ionto lower oxidation state to form CuCl and dichlorohydrocarbon, such as,but not limited to, ethylene dichloride. The CuCl is then re-circulatedback to the anode chamber for conversion to CuCl₂.

The ethylene dichloride formed by the methods and systems of theinvention can be used for any commercial purposes. In some embodiments,the ethylene dichloride is subjected to vinyl chloride monomer (VCM)formation through the process such as cracking/purification. The vinylchloride monomer may be used in the production of polyvinylchloride. Insome embodiments, the hydrochloric acid formed during the conversion ofEDC to VCM may be separated and reacted with acetylene to further formVCM.

In some embodiments, the HCl generated in the process of VCM formationmay be circulated to one or more of the electrochemical systemsdescribed herein where HCl is used in the cathode or anode electrolyteto form hydrogen gas or water at the cathode. As in FIG. 8B, anintegrated electrochemical system of the invention is illustrated incombination with the VCM/PVC synthesis. Any of the electrochemicalsystems of the invention such as system illustrated in FIG. 1B, 2, 4A or5A may be used to form CuCl₂ which when reacted with ethylene results inEDC. The cracking of EDC with subsequent processing of VCM produces HClwhich may be circulated to any of the electrochemical systems of FIG. 4Bor 5B to further form CuCl₂. It is to be understood that the wholeprocess may be conducted with only system of FIG. 4B or 5B (i.e. with noincorporation of systems of FIG. 1B, 2, 4A or 5A).

In some embodiments, the chlorination of ethylene in an aqueous mediumwith metal chloride in the higher oxidation state, results in ethylenedichloride, chloroethanol, or combination thereof. In some embodimentsof the methods and systems described herein, there is a formation ofmore than 10 wt %; or more than 20 wt %, or more than 30 wt %, or morethan 40 wt %, or more than 50 wt %, or more than 60 wt %, or more than70 wt %, or more than 80 wt %, or more than 90 wt %, or more than 95 wt%, or about 99 wt %, or between about 10-99 wt %, or between about 10-95wt %, or between about 15-95 wt %, or between about 25-95 wt %, orbetween about 50-95 wt %, or between about 50-99 wt % ethylenedichloride, or between about 50-99.9 wt % ethylene dichloride, orbetween about 50-99.99 wt % ethylene dichloride, from ethylene. In someembodiments, the remaining weight percentage is of chloroethanol. Insome embodiments, no chloroethanol is formed in the reaction. In someembodiments, less than 0.001 wt % or less than 0.01 wt % or less than0.1 wt % or less than 0.5 wt % or less than 1 wt % or less than 5 wt %or less than 10 wt % or less than 20 wt % of chloroethanol is formedwith the remaining EDC in the reaction. In some embodiments, less than0.001 wt % or less than 0.01 wt % or less than 0.1 wt % or less than 0.5wt % or less than 1 wt % or less than 5 wt % of metal ion is present inEDC product. In some embodiments, less than 0.001 wt % or less than 0.01wt % or less than 0.1 wt % of chloroethanol and/or metal ion is presentin the EDC product.

In some embodiments, the EDC product containing the metal ion may besubjected to washing step which may include rinsing with an organicsolvent or passing the EDC product through a column to remove the metalions. In some embodiments, the EDC product may be purified bydistillation where any of the side products such as chloral (CCl₃CHO)and/or chloral hydrate (2,2,2-trichloroethane-1,1-diol), if formed, maybe separated.

In some embodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon is propene. In someembodiments, the metal ion in the higher oxidation state such as CuCl₂is treated with propene to result in propane dichloride (C₃H₆Cl₂) ordichloropropane (DCP) which can be used to make allyl chloride (C₃H₅Cl).In some embodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon is butane or butylene.In some embodiments, the metal ion in the higher oxidation state such asCuCl₂ is treated with butene to result in butane dichloride (C₄H₈Cl₂) ordichlorobutene (C₄H₆Cl₂) which can be used to make chloroprene (C₄H₅Cl).In some embodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon is benzene. In someembodiments, the metal ion in the higher oxidation state such as CuCl₂is treated with benzene to result in chlorobenzene. In some embodiments,the metal ion in the higher oxidation state such as CuCl₂ is treatedwith acetylene to result in chloroacetylene, dichloroacetylene, vinylchloride, dichloroethene, tetrachloroethene, or combination thereof. Insome embodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon is treated with metalchloride in higher oxidation state to form a product including, but notlimited to, ethylene dichloride, chloroethanol, chloropropene, propyleneoxide (further dehydrochlorinated), allyl chloride, methyl chloride,trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethene, chlorobenzene, 1,2-dichloroethane,1,1,2-trichloroethane, 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane, pentachloroethane,1,1-dichloroethene, chlorophenol, chlorinated toluene, etc.

In some embodiments, the yield of the halogenated hydrocarbon fromunsaturated hydrocarbon, e.g. the yield of EDC from ethylene or yield ofDCP from propylene, or dichlorobutene from butene, using the metal ionsis more than 90% or more than 95% or between 90-95% or between 90-99% orbetween 90-99.9% by weight. In some embodiments, the selectivity of thehalogenated hydrocarbon from unsaturated hydrocarbon, e.g. the yield ofEDC from ethylene or yield of DCP from propylene, or dichlorobutene frombutene, using the metal ions is more than 80% or more than 90% orbetween 80-99% by weight. In some embodiments, the STY (space timeyield) of the halogenated hydrocarbon from unsaturated hydrocarbon, e.g.the yield of EDC from ethylene or yield of DCP from propylene, ordichlorobutene from butene, using the metal ions is more than 3 or morethan 4 or more than 5 or between 3-5 or between 3-6 or between 3-8.

In some embodiments, the metal formed with a higher oxidation state inthe anode electrolyte of the electrochemical systems of FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2,3A, 3B, 4A, 4B, 5A, and 5B may be reacted with saturated hydrocarbons tofrom corresponding halohydrocarbons or sulfohydrocarbons based on theanion attached to the metal. For example, the metal chloride, metalbromide, metal iodide, or metal sulfate etc. may result in correspondingchlorohydrocarbons, bromohydrocarbons, iodohydrocarbons, orsulfohydrocarbons, after the reaction of the saturated hydrocarbons withthe metal halide or metal sulfate. In some embodiments, the reaction ofmetal halide or metal sulfate with the saturated hydrocarbons results inthe generation of the above described products as well as the metalhalide or metal sulfate in the lower oxidation state. The metal ion inthe lower oxidation state may then be re-circulated back to theelectrochemical system for the generation of the metal ion in the higheroxidation state.

The “saturated hydrocarbon” as used herein, includes a hydrocarbon withno unsaturated carbon or hydrocarbon. The hydrocarbon may be linear,branched, or cyclic. For example, the hydrocarbon may be substituted orunsubstituted alkanes and/or substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkanes.The hydrocarbons may have a general formula of an unsubstituted alkaneas C_(n)H_(2n+2) where n is 2-20 or 2-10 or 2-8, or 2-5. In someembodiments, one or more hydrogens on the alkane or the cycloalkanes maybe further substituted with other functional groups such as but notlimited to, halogen (including chloro, bromo, iodo, and fluoro),carboxylic acid (—COOH), hydroxyl (—OH), amines, etc.

In some embodiments, the saturated hydrocarbon in the methods andsystems provided herein, is of formula III which after halogenation orsulfonation (including sulfation) results in the compound of formula IV:

wherein, n is 2-10; k is 0-5; and s is 1-5;

R is independently selected from hydrogen, halogen, —COOR′, —OH, and—NR′(R″), where R′ and R″ are independently selected from hydrogen,alkyl, and substituted alkyl; and

X is a halogen selected from fluoro, chloro, bromo, and iodo; —SO₃H; or—OSO₂OH.

It is to be understood that R substitutent(s) can be on one carbon atomor on more than 1 carbon atom depending on the number of R and carbonatoms. For example only, when n is 3 and k is 2, the substituents R canbe on the same carbon atom or on two different carbon atoms.

In some embodiments, the saturated hydrocarbon in the methods andsystems provided herein, is of formula III which after halogenationresults in the compound of formula IV:

wherein, n is 2-10; k is 0-5; and s is 1-5;

R is independently selected from hydrogen, halogen, —COOR′, —OH, and—NR′(R″), where R′ and R″ are independently selected from hydrogen,alkyl, and substituted alkyl; and

X is a halogen selected from chloro, bromo, and iodo.

In some embodiments, the saturated hydrocarbon in the methods andsystems provided herein, is of formula III which after halogenationresults in the compound of formula IV:

wherein, n is 2-5; k is 0-3; and s is 1-4;

R is independently selected from hydrogen, halogen, —COOR′, —OH, and—NR′(R″), where R′ and R″ are independently selected from hydrogen andalkyl; and

X is a halogen selected from chloro and bromo.

In some embodiments, the saturated hydrocarbon in the methods andsystems provided herein, is of formula III which after halogenationresults in the compound of formula IV:

wherein, n is 2-5; k is 0-3; and s is 1-4;

R is independently selected from hydrogen, halogen, and —OH, and

X is a halogen selected from chloro and bromo.

It is to be understood that when k is more than 1, the substituents Rcan be on the same carbon atom or on a different carbon atoms.Similarly, it is to be understood that when s is more than 1, thesubstituents X can be on the same carbon atom or on different carbonatoms.

In some embodiments for the above described embodiments of formula III,k is 0 and s is 1-2. In such embodiments, X is chloro.

Examples of substituted or unsubstituted alkanes, e.g. of formula III,include, but not limited to, methane, ethane, chloroethane, bromoethane,iodoethane, propane, chloropropane, hydroxypropane, butane,chlorobutane, hydroxybutane, pentane, hexane, cyclohexane, cyclopentane,chlorocyclopentane, etc.

In some embodiments, there are provided methods that include contactingan anode with a metal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anode chamber;converting or oxidizing the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to ahigher oxidation state at the anode; and treating the anode electrolytecomprising the metal ion in the higher oxidation state with a saturatedhydrocarbon. In some embodiments of the method, the method includescontacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte and forming an alkali atthe cathode. In some embodiments of the method, the method includescontacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte and forming an alkaliand hydrogen gas at the cathode. In some embodiments of the method, themethod includes contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte andforming hydrogen gas at the cathode. In some embodiments of the method,the method includes contacting a gas-diffusion cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte and forming an alkali at the cathode. In some embodiments ofthe method, the method includes contacting a gas-diffusion cathode witha cathode electrolyte and forming water at the cathode. In someembodiments, there are provided methods that include contacting an anodewith a metal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anode chamber; convertingthe metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation stateat the anode; contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte; formingan alkali, water, and/or hydrogen gas at the cathode; and treating theanode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in the higher oxidation statewith a saturated hydrocarbon. In some embodiments, there are providedmethods that include contacting an anode with a metal ion in an anodeelectrolyte in an anode chamber; converting the metal ion from a loweroxidation state to a higher oxidation state at the anode; contacting agas-diffusion cathode with a cathode electrolyte; forming an alkali orwater at the cathode; and treating the anode electrolyte comprising themetal ion in the higher oxidation state with a saturated hydrocarbon. Insome embodiments, the treatment of the saturated hydrocarbon with themetal ion in the higher oxidation state may be inside the cathodechamber or outside the cathode chamber. In some embodiments, thetreatment of the metal ion in the higher oxidation state with thesaturated hydrocarbon results in halogenated hydrocarbon orsulfohydrocarbon, such as, chloro, bromo, iodo, or sulfohydrocarbons andthe metal ion in the lower oxidation state. In some embodiments, themetal ion in the lower oxidation state is re-circulated back to theanode chamber. In some embodiments, the saturated hydrocarbon in theaforementioned embodiments and as described herein is of formula III (asdescribed herein) or is C2-C10 alkane or C2-C5 alkane. In someembodiments, the saturated hydrocarbon in the aforementioned embodimentsand as described herein is, methane. In some embodiments, the saturatedhydrocarbon in the aforementioned embodiments and as described hereinis, ethane. In some embodiments, the saturated hydrocarbon in theaforementioned embodiments and as described herein is, propane. Thehalohydrocarbon formed from such saturated hydrocarbon is of formula IV(as described herein), e.g., chloromethane, dichloromethane,chloroethane, dichloroethane, chloropropane, dichloropropane, etc.

In some embodiments of the above described methods, the metal ion usedis platinum, palladium, copper, iron, tin, and chromium. In someembodiments of the above described methods, the anode does not producechlorine gas. In some embodiments of the above described methods, thetreatment of the saturated hydrocarbon with the metal ion in the higheroxidation state does not require oxygen gas and/or chlorine gas. In someembodiments of the above described methods, the anode does not producechlorine gas and the treatment of the saturated hydrocarbon with themetal ion in the higher oxidation state does not require oxygen gasand/or chlorine gas.

In some embodiments, there are provided systems that include an anodechamber including an anode in contact with a metal ion in an anodeelectrolyte wherein the anode is configured to convert the metal ionfrom a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state; and a reactoroperably connected to the anode chamber and configured to react theanode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in the higher oxidation statewith a saturated hydrocarbon. In some embodiments of the systems, thesystem includes a cathode chamber including a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte wherein the cathode is configured to form an alkali at thecathode. In some embodiments of the systems, the system includes acathode chamber including a cathode with a cathode electrolyte whereinthe cathode is configured to form hydrogen gas at the cathode. In someembodiments of the systems, the system includes a cathode chamberincluding a cathode with a cathode electrolyte wherein the cathode isconfigured to form an alkali and hydrogen gas at the cathode. In someembodiments of the systems, the system includes a gas-diffusion cathodewith a cathode electrolyte wherein the cathode is configured to form analkali at the cathode. In some embodiments of the systems, the systemincludes a gas-diffusion cathode with a cathode electrolyte wherein thecathode is configured to form water at the cathode. In some embodiments,there are provided systems that include an anode chamber including ananode with a metal ion in an anode electrolyte wherein the anode isconfigured to convert the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to ahigher oxidation state in the anode chamber; a cathode chamber includinga cathode with a cathode electrolyte wherein the cathode is configuredto form an alkali, water, and hydrogen gas in the cathode electrolyte;and a reactor operably connected to the anode chamber and configured toreact the anode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in the higheroxidation state with saturated hydrocarbon. In some embodiments, thereare provided systems that include an anode chamber including an anodewith a metal ion in an anode electrolyte wherein the anode is configuredto convert the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state in the anode chamber; a cathode chamber including agas-diffusion cathode with a cathode electrolyte wherein the cathode isconfigured to form an alkali or water in the cathode electrolyte; and areactor operably connected to the anode chamber and configured to reactthe anode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in the higher oxidationstate with saturated hydrocarbon. In some embodiments, the treatment ofthe saturated hydrocarbon with the metal ion in the higher oxidationstate may be inside the cathode chamber or outside the cathode chamber.In some embodiments, the treatment of the metal ion in the higheroxidation state with the saturated hydrocarbon results in chloro, bromo,iodo, or sulfohydrocarbons and the metal ion in the lower oxidationstate. In some embodiments, the system is configured to form the metalion in the lower oxidation state from the metal ion in the higheroxidation state with the saturated hydrocarbon and re-circulate themetal ion in the lower oxidation state back to the anode chamber.

In some embodiments of the methods and systems described as above, themetal ion is a metal ion described herein, such as, but not limited to,platinum, palladium, copper, iron, tin, or chromium.

In some embodiments of the above described systems, the anode isconfigured to not produce chlorine gas. In some embodiments of the abovedescribed systems, the reactor configured to react the saturatedhydrocarbon with the metal ion in the higher oxidation state, isconfigured to not require oxygen gas and/or chlorine gas. In someembodiments of the above described methods, the anode is configured tonot produce chlorine gas and the reactor is configured to not requireoxygen gas and/or chlorine gas.

It is to be understood that the example of the electrochemical systemillustrated in FIG. 8A can be configured for saturated hydrocarbons byreplacing the unsaturated hydrocarbon with a saturated hydrocarbon.Accordingly, suitable metal ions may be used such as platinum chloride,palladium chloride, copper chloride etc.

In some embodiments, the chlorination of ethane in an aqueous mediumwith metal chloride in the higher oxidation state, results in ethanechloride, ethane dichloride, or combination thereof. In some embodimentsof the methods and systems described herein, there is a formation ofmore than 10 wt %; or more than 20 wt %, or more than 30 wt %, or morethan 40 wt %, or more than 50 wt %, or more than 60 wt %, or more than70 wt %, or more than 80 wt %, or more than 90 wt %, or more than 95 wt%, or about 99 wt %, or between about 10-99 wt %, or between about 10-95wt %, or between about 15-95 wt %, or between about 25-95 wt %, orbetween about 50-95 wt %, or between about 50-99 wt %, or between about50-99.9 wt %, or between about 50-99.99 wt % chloroethane, from ethane.In some embodiments, the remaining weight percentage is of chloroethanoland/or ethylene dichloride. In some embodiments, no chloroethanol isformed in the reaction. In some embodiments, less than 0.001 wt % orless than 0.01 wt % or less than 0.1 wt % or less than 0.5 wt % or lessthan 1 wt % or less than 5 wt % or less than 10 wt % or less than 20 wt% of chloroethanol is formed with the remaining product in the reaction.In some embodiments, less than 0.001 wt % or less than 0.01 wt % or lessthan 0.1 wt % or less than 0.5 wt % or less than 1 wt % or less than 5wt % of metal ion is present in the product. In some embodiments, lessthan 0.001 wt % or less than 0.01 wt % or less than 0.1 wt % ofchloroethanol and/or metal ion is present in the product.

In some embodiments, the yield of the halogenated hydrocarbon fromsaturated hydrocarbon, e.g. the yield of chloroethane or EDC fromethane, using the metal ions is more than 90% or more than 95% orbetween 90-95% or between 90-99% or between 90-99.9% by weight. In someembodiments, the selectivity of the halogenated hydrocarbon fromsaturated hydrocarbon, e.g. the yield of chloroethane or EDC fromethane, using the metal ions is more than 80% or more than 90% orbetween 80-99% by weight. In some embodiments, the STY (space timeyield) of the halogenated hydrocarbon from saturated hydrocarbon is morethan 3 or more than 4 or more than 5 or between 3-5 or between 3-6 orbetween 3-8.

The products, such as, but not limited to, halogenated hydrocarbon,acid, carbonate, and/or bicarbonate formed by the methods and systems ofthe invention are greener than the same products formed by the methodsand systems conventionally known in the art. There are provided methodsto make green halogenated hydrocarbon, that include contacting an anodewith an anode electrolyte; oxidizing a metal chloride from the loweroxidation state to a higher oxidation state at the anode; contacting acathode with a cathode electrolyte; and halogenating an unsaturated orsaturated hydrocarbon with the metal chloride in the higher oxidationstate to produce a green halogenated hydrocarbon. In some embodiments,there is provided a green halogenated hydrocarbon formed by the methodsdescribed herein. There are also provided system that include an anodein contact with an anode electrolyte wherein the anode is configured tooxidize a metal ion from the lower oxidation state to a higher oxidationstate; a cathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte; and a reactoroperably connected to the anode chamber and configured to react themetal ion in the higher oxidation state with an unsaturated or saturatedhydrocarbon to form a green halogenated hydrocarbon.

The term “greener” or “green” or grammatical equivalent thereof, as usedherein, includes any chemical or product formed by the methods andsystems of the invention that has higher energy savings or voltagesavings as compared to the same chemical or product formed by themethods known in the art. For example, chlor-alkali is a process thattypically is used to make chlorine gas, which chlorine gas is then usedto chlorinate ethylene to form EDC. The amount of energy required tomake EDC from the chlor-alkali process is higher than the amount ofenergy required to make EDC from the metal oxidation process of theinvention. Therefore, the EDC produced by the methods and systems of theinvention is greener than the EDC produced by the chlor-alkali process.Such savings in energy is illustrated in FIG. 8C which illustrates theactivation barriers for carrying out the methods of the inventioncompared to the activation barriers for the chlor-alkali process.

As illustrated in FIG. 8C, a comparison is made between the energyrequired to make EDC from the chlor-alkali process and the energyrequired to make the EDC from the methods and systems of the invention.The process of making EDC is illustrated in two parts. Anelectrochemistry part, where the copper oxidation takes place in System1 and System 2 of the invention compared to chlorine generation takingplace in the chlor-alkali process. A catalysis part, where copper (II)chloride (generated by electrochemistry) chlorinates ethylene in System1 and 2 and chlorine gas (generated by the chlor-alkali process)chlorinates ethylene (conventionally known) to form EDC. In System 1,the electrochemical reaction is carried out in the absence of ligand andin System 2, the electrochemical reaction is carried out in the presenceof the ligand. In System 1, System 2, and the chlor-alkali process, thecathode is a hydrogen gas producing cathode and the current density forthe electrochemical reaction is 300 mA/cm². As illustrated in FIG. 8C,for the electrochemical reaction, there is an energy saving of more than125 kJ/mol for System 1 over chlor-alkali process and energy savings ofmore than 225 kJ/mol for System 2 over the chlor-alkali process.Therefore, there can be an energy savings of up to 300 kJ/mol; or up to250 kJ/mol; or between 50-300 kJ/mol; or between 50-250 kJ/mol; orbetween 100-250 kJ/mol; or between 100-200 kJ/mol, to make the greenhalogenated hydrocarbon, such as, but not limited to, EDC, by methodsand systems of the invention as compared to conventional process such aschlor-alkali process to make EDC. This converts to a saving of more than1 megawatthour/ton of EDC or between 1-21 megawatthour/ton of EDC forSystems 1 and 2 compared to the chlor-alkali process. It also correlatesto the voltage saving of more than 1V or between 1-2V (1V×2 electrons isapprox. 200 kJ/mol) as compared to the chlor-alkali process.

As also illustrated in FIG. 8C, the catalyst part of the reaction has atheoretical low barrier for each System 1 and 2 and a high barrier forthe two Systems 1 and 2. The catalyst reaction in System 1 and System 2can happen at the point of low barrier or at the point of high barrieror anywhere in between, depending on conditions, such as, but notlimited to, concentration, size of the reactor, flow rates etc. Even ifthere is some energy input for the catalysis reaction in System 1 and 2,it will be offset by the significant energy saving in theelectrochemical reaction such that there is a net energy saving of up to100 kJ/mol; or more than 100 kJ/mol; or between 50-100 kJ/mol; orbetween 0-100 kJ/mol. This converts to up to or more than 1megawatthr/ton of EDC or voltage saving of 0-1V or more than 1V; orbetween 1-2V as compared to chlor-alkali process. It is to be understoodthat the chlor-alkali process, System 1 and System 2 are all carried outin the aqueous medium. The electrochemical cell or the catalysis systemrunning on an organic solvent (e.g., with some or all of the water fromelectrochemical cell removed by azeotropic distillation) would requireeven higher energy than the conventional method and would not beyielding a green halogenated hydrocarbon.

Also further illustrated in FIG. 8C, is the savings in energy in System2 which is with the use of the ligand as compared to System 1 which iswithout the use of the ligand.

Accordingly, there are provided methods to make green halogenatedhydrocarbon, that include contacting an anode with an anode electrolyte;oxidizing a metal chloride from the lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the anode; contacting a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte; and halogenating an unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbonwith the metal chloride in the higher oxidation state to produce a greenhalogenated hydrocarbon wherein the method results in net energy savingof more than 100 kJ/mol or more than 150 kJ/mol or more than 200 kJ/molor between 100-250 kJ/mol or between 50-100 kJ/mol or between 0-100kJ/mol or the method results in the voltage savings of more than 1V orbetween 0-1V or between 1-2V or between 0-2V. There are also providedsystem that include an anode in contact with an anode electrolytewherein the anode is configured to oxidize a metal ion from the loweroxidation state to a higher oxidation state; a cathode in contact with acathode electrolyte; and a reactor operably connected to the anodechamber and configured to react the metal ion in the higher oxidationstate with an unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon to form a greenhalogenated hydrocarbon wherein the system results in net energy savingof more than 100 kJ/mol or more than 150/mol or more than 200 kJ/mol orbetween 100-250 kJ/mol or between 50-100 kJ/mol or between 0-100 kJ/molor the system results in the voltage savings of more than 1V or between0-1 V or between 1-2V or between 0-2V.

All the electrochemical systems and methods described herein are carriedout in more than 5 wt % water or more than 6 wt % water or aqueousmedium. In one aspect, the methods and systems provide an advantage ofconducting the metal oxidation reaction in the electrochemical cell andreduction reaction outside the cell, all in an aqueous medium.Applicants surprisingly and unexpectedly found that the use of aqueousmedium, in the halogenations or sulfonation of the unsaturated orsaturated hydrocarbon or hydrogen gas, not only resulted in high yieldand selectivity of the product (shown in examples herein) but alsoresulted in the generation of the reduced metal ion with lower oxidationstate in the aqueous medium which could be re-circulated back to theelectrochemical system. In some embodiments, since the electrochemicalcell runs efficiently in the aqueous medium, no removal or minimalremoval of water (such as through azeotropic distillation) is requiredfrom the anode electrolyte containing the metal ion in the higheroxidation state which is reacted with the unsaturated or saturatedhydrocarbon or hydrogen gas in the aqueous medium. Therefore, the use ofthe aqueous medium in both the electrochemical cell and the catalysissystem provides efficient and less energy intensive integrated systemsand methods of the invention.

Accordingly in some embodiments, there is provided a method includingcontacting an anode with an anode electrolyte wherein the anodeelectrolyte comprises metal ion, oxidizing the metal ion from a loweroxidation state to a higher oxidation state at the anode, contacting acathode with a cathode electrolyte, and reacting an unsaturated orsaturated hydrocarbon with the anode electrolyte comprising the metalion in the higher oxidation state in an aqueous medium wherein theaqueous medium comprises more than 5 wt % water or more than 5.5 wt % ormore than 6 wt % or between 5-90 wt % or between 5-95 wt % or between5-99 wt % water or between 5.5-90 wt % or between 5.5-95 wt % or between5.5-99 wt % water or between 6-90 wt % or between 6-95 wt % or between6-99 wt % water. In some embodiments, there is provided a methodincluding contacting an anode with an anode electrolyte wherein theanode electrolyte comprises metal ion, oxidizing a metal halide or ametal sulfate from the lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation stateat the anode, contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte, andhalogenating or sulfonating an unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon withthe metal halide or a metal sulfate in the higher oxidation state in anaqueous medium wherein the aqueous medium comprises more than 5 wt % ormore than 5.5 wt % or more than 6 wt % or between 5-90 wt % or between5-95 wt % or between 5-99 wt % water or between 5.5-90 wt % or between5.5-95 wt % or between 5.5-99 wt % water or between 6-90 wt % or between6-95 wt % or between 6-99 wt % water. The unsaturated hydrocarbons (suchas formula I), saturated hydrocarbons (such as formula III), thehalogenated hydrocarbons (such as formula II and IV), the metal ions,etc. have all been described in detail herein.

In some embodiments, there is provided a method including contacting ananode with an anode electrolyte, oxidizing a metal halide or a metalsulfate from the lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state atthe anode, contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte, andcontacting the metal halide or a metal sulfate in the higher oxidationstate with hydrogen gas in an aqueous medium to form an acid, such as,hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid wherein the aqueous medium comprisesmore than 5 wt % water or more than 5.5 wt % or more than 6 wt % orbetween 5-90 wt % or between 5-95 wt % or between 5-99 wt % water orbetween 5.5-90 wt % or between 5.5-95 wt % or between 5.5-99 wt % wateror between 6-90 wt % or between 6-95 wt % or between 6-99 wt % water. Insome embodiments, the cathode produces hydroxide ions.

In some embodiments of the above described methods, the cathode produceswater, alkali, and/or hydrogen gas. In some embodiments of the abovedescribed methods, the cathode is an ODC producing water. In someembodiments of the above described methods, the cathode is an ODCproducing alkali. In some embodiments of the above described methods,the cathode produces hydrogen gas. In some embodiments of the abovedescribed methods, the cathode is an oxygen depolarizing cathode thatreduces oxygen and water to hydroxide ions; the cathode is a hydrogengas producing cathode that reduces water to hydrogen gas and hydroxideions; the cathode is a hydrogen gas producing cathode that reduceshydrochloric acid to hydrogen gas; or the cathode is an oxygendepolarizing cathode that reacts hydrochloric acid and oxygen gas toform water.

In some embodiments of the above described methods, the metal ion is anymetal ion described herein. In some embodiments of the above describedmethods, the metal ion is selected from the group consisting of iron,chromium, copper, tin, silver, cobalt, uranium, lead, mercury, vanadium,bismuth, titanium, ruthenium, osmium, europium, zinc, cadmium, gold,nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium, iridium, manganese, technetium,rhenium, molybdenum, tungsten, niobium, tantalum, zirconium, hafnium,and combination thereof. In some embodiments, the metal ion is selectedfrom the group consisting of iron, chromium, copper, and tin. In someembodiments, the metal ion is copper. In some embodiments, the loweroxidation state of the metal ion is 1+, 2+, 3+, 4+, or 5+. In someembodiments, the higher oxidation state of the metal ion is 2+, 3+, 4+,5+, or 6+.

In some embodiments, the method further includes recirculating at leasta portion of the metal ion in the lower oxidation state back to theelectrochemical cell. In some embodiments, the method does not conductazeotropic distillation of the water before reacting the metal ion inthe higher oxidation state with the unsaturated or saturatedhydrocarbon. In some embodiments, the above described methods do notproduce chlorine gas at the anode. In some embodiments, the abovedescribed methods do not require oxygen gas and/or chlorine gas for thechlorination of unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon to halogenatedhydrocarbon.

In some embodiments, there is provided a system, comprising an anode incontact with an anode electrolyte comprising metal ion wherein the anodeis configured to oxidize the metal ion from the lower oxidation state toa higher oxidation state; a cathode in contact with a cathodeelectrolyte; and a reactor operably connected to the anode chamber andconfigured to react the anode electrolyte comprising the metal ion inthe higher oxidation state with an unsaturated hydrocarbon or saturatedhydrocarbon in an aqueous medium wherein the aqueous medium comprisesmore than 5 wt % water or more than 5.5 wt % or more than 6 wt % orbetween 5-90 wt % or between 5-95 wt % or between 5-99 wt % water orbetween 5.5-90 wt % or between 5.5-95 wt % or between 5.5-99 wt % wateror between 6-90 wt % or between 6-95 wt % or between 6-99 wt % water. Insome embodiments, there is provided a system including an anode incontact with an anode electrolyte and configured to oxidize a metalhalide or a metal sulfate from the lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the anode, a cathode in contact with a cathodeelectrolyte, and a reactor operably connected to the anode chamber andconfigured to halogenate or sulfonate an unsaturated or saturatedhydrocarbon with the metal halide or a metal sulfate in the higheroxidation state in an aqueous medium wherein the aqueous mediumcomprises more than 5 wt % water or more than 5.5 wt % or more than 6 wt% or between 5-90 wt % or between 5-95 wt % or between 5-99 wt % wateror between 5.5-90 wt % or between 5.5-95 wt % or between 5.5-99 wt %water or between 6-90 wt % or between 6-95 wt % or between 6-99 wt %water.

In some embodiments, there is provided a system including an anode incontact with an anode electrolyte and configured to oxidize a metalhalide or a metal sulfate from the lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the anode, a cathode in contact with a cathodeelectrolyte, and a reactor operably connected to the anode chamber andconfigured to contact the metal halide or a metal sulfate in the higheroxidation state with hydrogen gas in an aqueous medium to form an acid,such as, hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid wherein the aqueous mediumcomprises more than 5 wt % water or more than 5.5 wt % or more than 6 wt% or between 5-90 wt % or between 5-95 wt % or between 5-99 wt % wateror between 5.5-90 wt % or between 5.5-95 wt % or between 5.5-99 wt %water or between 6-90 wt % or between 6-95 wt % or between 6-99 wt %water.

In some embodiments of the above described systems, the cathode isconfigured to produce hydroxide ions. In some embodiments of the abovedescribed systems, the cathode is configured to produce hydrogen gas. Insome embodiments of the above described systems, the cathode isconfigured to produce water. In some embodiments of the above describedsystems, the cathode is ODC. In some embodiments of such methods andsystems, no azeotropic distillation of water is required to reduce theamount of water in the anode electrolyte. In some embodiments, thesystem further includes a separator operably connected to the reactorthat separates the product such as acid or the halogenated hydrocarbonfrom the metal ion in the lower oxidation state. In some embodiments,the system further includes a recirculation system operably connected tothe separator and the anode chamber of the electrochemical systemconfigured to recirculate at least a portion of the metal ion in thelower oxidation state from the separator back to the electrochemicalcell. Such recirculation system may be a conduit, pipe, tube etc. thatmay be used to transfer the solutions. Appropriate control valves andcomputer control systems may be associated with such recirculationsystems.

In some embodiments, the above described systems are configured to notproduce chlorine gas at the anode. In some embodiments, the abovedescribed systems are configured to not require oxygen gas and/orchlorine gas for the chlorination of unsaturated or saturatedhydrocarbon to halogenated hydrocarbon.

In some embodiments, the methods and systems described herein includeseparating the halogenated hydrocarbon and/or other organic products(formed after the reaction of the saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbonwith metal ion in higher oxidation state, as described herein) from themetal ions before circulating the metal ion solution back in theelectrochemical cell. In some embodiments, it may be desirable to removethe organics from the metal ion solution before the metal ion solutionis circulated back to the electrochemical cell to prevent the fouling ofthe membranes in the electrochemical cell. As described herein above,the aqueous medium containing the metal ions, after the reaction withthe unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon, contains the organic productssuch as, but not limited to, halogenated hydrocarbon and other sideproducts (may be present in trace amounts). For example, the metal ionsolution containing the metal ion in the higher oxidation state isreacted with ethylene to form the metal ion in the lower oxidation stateand ethylene dichloride. Other side products may be formed including,but not limited to, chloroethanol, dichloroacetaldehyde,trichloroacetaldehyde (chloral), etc. There are provided methods andsystems to separate the organic products from the metal ions in theaqueous medium before circulating the aqueous medium containing themetal ions back in the electrochemical cell. The aqueous medium may be amixture of both the metal ion in the lower oxidation state and the metalion in the higher oxidation state, the ratio of the lower and higheroxidation state will vary depending on the aqueous medium from theelectrochemical cell (where lower oxidation state is converted to higheroxidation state) and the aqueous medium after reaction with thehydrocarbon (where higher oxidation state is converted to the loweroxidation state).

In some embodiments, the separation of the organic products from themetal ions in the aqueous medium is carried out using adsorbents. The“adsorbent” as used herein includes a compound that has a high affinityfor the organic compounds and none or very low affinity for the metalions. In some embodiments, the adsorbent does not have or has very lowaffinity for water in addition to none or low affinity for metal ions.Accordingly, the adsorbent may be a hydrophobic compound that adsorbsorganics but repels metal ions and water. The “organic” or “organiccompound” or “organic products” as used herein includes any compoundthat has carbon in it.

In some embodiments, the foregoing methods include using adsorbents suchas, but not limited to, activated charcoal, alumina, activated silica,polymers, etc., to remove the organic products from the metal ionsolution. These adsorbents are commercially available. Examples ofactivated charcoal that can be used in the methods include, but notlimited to, powdered activated charcoal, granular activated charcoal,extruded activated charcoal, bead activated carbon, impregnated carbon,polymer coated carbon, carbon cloth, etc. The “adsorbent polymers” or“polymers” used in the context of the adsorbent herein includes polymersthat have high affinity for organic compounds but none or low affinityfor metal ions and water. Examples of polymer that can be used asadsorbent include, but not limited to, polyolefins. The “polyolefin” or“polyalkene” used herein includes a polymer produced from an olefin (oran alkene) as a monomer. The olefin or the alkene may be an aliphaticcompound or an aromatic compound. Examples include, but not limited to,polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polymethylpentene,polybutene-1, polyolefin elastomers, polyisobutylene, ethylene propylenerubber, polymethylacrylate, poly(methylmethacrylate),poly(isobutylmethacrylate), and the like.

In some embodiments, the adsorbent used herein adsorbs more than 90% w/worganic compounds; more than 95% w/w organic compounds; or more than 99%w/w; or more than 99.99% w/w organic compounds; or more than 99.999% w/worganic compounds, from the aqueous medium containing metal ions,organic compounds, and water. In some embodiments, the adsorbent usedherein adsorbs less than 2% w/w metal ions; or less than 1% w/w metalions; or less than 0.1% w/w metal ions; or less than 0.01% w/w metalions; or less than 0.001% w/w metal ions from the aqueous mediumcontaining metal ions, organic compounds, and water. In someembodiments, the adsorbent used herein does not adsorb metal ions fromthe aqueous medium. In some embodiments, the aqueous medium obtainedafter passing through the adsorbent (and that is recirculated back tothe electrochemical cell) contains less than 100 ppm, or less than 50ppm, or less than 10 ppm, or less than 1 ppm, of the organic compound.

The adsorbent may be used in any shape and form available commercially.For example, in some method and system embodiments, the adsorbent is apowder, plate, mesh, beads, cloth, fiber, pills, flakes, blocks, and thelike. In some method and system embodiments, the adsorbent is in theform of a bed, a packed column, and the like. In some method and systemembodiments, the adsorbent may be in the form of series of beds orcolumns of packed adsorbent material. For example, in some method andsystem embodiments, the adsorbent is one or more of packed columns(arranged in parallel or in series) containing activated charcoalpowder, polystyrene beads or polystyrene powder.

In some method and system embodiments, the adsorbent is regeneratedafter the adsorption of the organic products by using various desorptiontechniques including, but not limited to, purging with an inert fluid(such as water), change of chemical conditions such as pH, increase intemperature, reduction in partial pressure, reduction in theconcentration, purging with inert gas at high temperature, such as, butnot limited to, purging with steam, nitrogen gas, argon gas, or airat >100° C., etc.

In some method and system embodiments, the adsorbent may be disposed,burnt, or discarded after the desorption process. In some method andsystem embodiments, the adsorbent is reused in the adsorption processafter the desorption. In some method and system embodiments, theadsorbent is reused in multiple adsorption and regeneration cyclesbefore being discarded. In some method and system embodiments, theadsorbent is reused in one, two, three, four, five, or more adsorptionand regeneration cycles before being discarded.

In some embodiments, there is provided a method including:

contacting an anode with an anode electrolyte wherein the anodeelectrolyte comprises metal ion,

oxidizing the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the anode,

contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte,

reacting an unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon with the anodeelectrolyte comprising the metal ion in the higher oxidation state in anaqueous medium to form one or more organic compounds comprisinghalogenated hydrocarbon and metal ion in the lower oxidation state inthe aqueous medium, and

separating the one or more organic compounds from the aqueous mediumcomprising metal ion in the lower oxidation state.

In some embodiments of the foregoing method, the method furthercomprises recirculating the aqueous medium comprising metal ion in thelower oxidation state back to the anode electrolyte.

In some embodiments of the foregoing methods, the unsaturatedhydrocarbon (such as formula I), the saturated hydrocarbon (such asformula III), the halogenated hydrocarbon (such as formula II and IV),the metal ions, etc. have all been described in detail herein.

In some embodiments, there is provided a method including:

contacting an anode with an anode electrolyte wherein the anodeelectrolyte comprises metal ion,

oxidizing the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the anode,

contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte,

reacting ethylene with the anode electrolyte comprising the metal ion inthe higher oxidation state in an aqueous medium to form one or moreorganic compounds comprising ethylene dichloride and metal ion in thelower oxidation state in the aqueous medium,

separating the one or more organic compounds from the aqueous mediumcomprising metal ion in the lower oxidation state, and

recirculating the aqueous medium comprising metal ion in the loweroxidation state back to the anode electrolyte.

In some embodiments of the foregoing methods, the aqueous mediumcomprises more than 5 wt % water or more than 5.5 wt % or more than 6 wt% or between 5-90 wt % or between 5-95 wt % or between 5-99 wt % wateror between 5.5-90 wt % or between 5.5-95 wt % or between 5.5-99 wt %water or between 6-90 wt % or between 6-95 wt % or between 6-99 wt %water. In some embodiments of the foregoing methods, the organiccompound further comprises one or more of chloroethanol,dichloroacetaldehyde, trichloroacetaldehyde, or combinations thereof. Insome embodiments of the foregoing methods, the metal ion is copper. Themetal ion in the lower oxidation state is Cu(I) and metal ion in thehigher oxidation state is Cu(II). In some embodiments of the foregoingmethods, the metal salt is copper halide. The metal ion in the loweroxidation state is Cu(I)Cl and metal ion in the higher oxidation stateis Cu(II)Cl₂.

In some embodiments of the foregoing methods, the step of separating theone or more organic compounds from the aqueous medium comprising metalion in the lower oxidation state comprises using one or more adsorbents.In some embodiments of the foregoing methods, the adsorbent is activatedcharcoal. In some embodiments of the foregoing methods, the adsorbent isa polymer such as a polyolefin selected from, but not limited to,polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polymethylpentene,polybutene-1, polyolefin elastomers, polyisobutylene, ethylene propylenerubber, polymethylacrylate, poly(methylmethacrylate),poly(isobutylmethacrylate), and combinations thereof. In someembodiments of the foregoing methods, the adsorbent is polystyrene.

In some embodiments, there is provided a method including:

contacting an anode with an anode electrolyte wherein the anodeelectrolyte comprises metal ion,

oxidizing the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the anode,

contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte,

reacting an unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon with the anodeelectrolyte comprising the metal ion in the higher oxidation state in anaqueous medium to form one or more organic compounds comprisinghalogenated hydrocarbon and metal ion in the lower oxidation state inthe aqueous medium,

separating the one or more organic compounds from the aqueous mediumcomprising metal ion in the lower oxidation state by using an adsorbent,and

recirculating the aqueous medium comprising metal ion in the loweroxidation state to the anode electrolyte.

In some embodiments, there is provided a method including:

contacting an anode with an anode electrolyte wherein the anodeelectrolyte comprises metal ion,

oxidizing the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the anode,

contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte,

reacting ethylene with the anode electrolyte comprising the metal ion inthe higher oxidation state in an aqueous medium to form one or moreorganic compounds comprising ethylene dichloride and metal ion in thelower oxidation state in the aqueous medium,

separating the one or more organic compounds from the aqueous mediumcomprising metal ion in the lower oxidation state by using an adsorbent,and

recirculating the aqueous medium comprising metal ion in the loweroxidation state to the anode electrolyte.

In some embodiments, in the foregoing methods, the adsorbent isactivated charcoal. In some embodiments, in the foregoing methods, theadsorbent is polyolefin such as, polystyrene.

In some embodiments of the foregoing methods, the adsorbent adsorbs morethan 90% w/w organic compounds; or more than 95% w/w organic compounds;or more than 99% w/w; or more than 99.99% w/w; or more than 99.999% w/worganic compound from the aqueous medium. In some embodiments of theforegoing methods, the aqueous medium obtained after passing through theadsorbent (which is recirculated back to the anode electrolyte) containsless than 100 ppm, or less than 50 ppm, or less than 10 ppm, or lessthan 1 ppm, of the organic compound.

In some embodiments of the above described methods, the cathode produceswater, alkali, and/or hydrogen gas. In some embodiments of the abovedescribed methods, the cathode is an ODC producing water. In someembodiments of the above described methods, the cathode is an ODCproducing alkali. In some embodiments of the above described methods,the cathode produces hydrogen gas. In some embodiments of the abovedescribed methods, the cathode is an oxygen depolarizing cathode thatreduces oxygen and water to hydroxide ions; the cathode is a hydrogengas producing cathode that reduces water to hydrogen gas and hydroxideions; the cathode is a hydrogen gas producing cathode that reduceshydrochloric acid to hydrogen gas; or the cathode is an oxygendepolarizing cathode that reacts hydrochloric acid and oxygen gas toform water.

In some embodiments of the above described methods, the metal ion is anymetal ion described herein. In some embodiments of the above describedmethods, the metal ion is selected from the group consisting of iron,chromium, copper, tin, silver, cobalt, uranium, lead, mercury, vanadium,bismuth, titanium, ruthenium, osmium, europium, zinc, cadmium, gold,nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium, iridium, manganese, technetium,rhenium, molybdenum, tungsten, niobium, tantalum, zirconium, hafnium,and combination thereof. In some embodiments, the metal ion is selectedfrom the group consisting of iron, chromium, copper, and tin. In someembodiments, the metal ion is copper. In some embodiments, the loweroxidation state of the metal ion is 1+, 2+, 3+, 4+, or 5+. In someembodiments, the higher oxidation state of the metal ion is 2+, 3+, 4+,5+, or 6+.

In some embodiments, there is provided a method including:

contacting an anode with an anode electrolyte wherein the anodeelectrolyte comprises copper ion,

oxidizing the copper ion from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the anode,

contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte,

reacting ethylene with the anode electrolyte comprising the copper ionin the higher oxidation state in an aqueous medium to form one or moreorganic compounds comprising ethylene dichloride and copper ion in thelower oxidation state in the aqueous medium,

separating the one or more organic compounds from the aqueous mediumcomprising copper ion in the lower oxidation state by using an adsorbentselected from activated charcoal, polyolefin, activated silica, andcombinations thereof to produce the aqueous medium comprising less than100 ppm, or less than 50 ppm, or less than 10 ppm, or less than 1 ppm ofthe organic compound and the copper ion in the lower oxidation state,and

recirculating the aqueous medium comprising copper ion in the loweroxidation state to the anode electrolyte.

In some embodiments, the method provided above may further include astep of providing turbulence in the anode electrolyte to improve masstransfer at the anode. Such turbulence in the anode using a turbulencepromoter has been described herein above. In some embodiments, themethod provided above may further include contacting a diffusionenhancing anode such as, but not limited to, a porous anode with theanode electrolyte. Such diffusion enhancing anode such as, but notlimited to, the porous anodes have been described herein below.

In some embodiments, there is provided a system, comprising

an anode in contact with an anode electrolyte comprising metal ionwherein the anode is configured to oxidize the metal ion from a loweroxidation state to a higher oxidation state;

a cathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte;

a reactor operably connected to the anode chamber and configured toreact the anode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in the higheroxidation state with an unsaturated hydrocarbon or saturated hydrocarbonin an aqueous medium to form one or more organic compounds comprisinghalogenated hydrocarbon and metal ion in the lower oxidation state inthe aqueous medium, and

a separator operably connected to the reactor and the anode andconfigured to separate the one or more organic compounds from theaqueous medium comprising metal ion in the lower oxidation state, andrecirculate the aqueous medium comprising metal ion in the loweroxidation state to the anode electrolyte.

In some embodiments of the foregoing system, the unsaturated hydrocarbon(such as formula I), the saturated hydrocarbon (such as formula III),the halogenated hydrocarbon (such as formula II and IV), the metal ions,etc. have all been described in detail herein.

In some embodiments, there is provided a system, comprising

an anode in contact with an anode electrolyte comprising metal halide ormetal sulfate wherein the anode is configured to oxidize the metalhalide or the metal sulfate from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state;

a cathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte;

a reactor operably connected to the anode chamber and configured tohalogenate or sulfonate an unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon with themetal halide or a metal sulfate in an aqueous medium to form one or moreorganic compounds comprising halogenated hydrocarbon or sulfonatedhydrocarbon and metal ion in the lower oxidation state in the aqueousmedium, and

a separator operably connected to the reactor and the anode andconfigured to separate the one or more organic compounds from theaqueous medium comprising metal halide or metal sulfate in the loweroxidation state, and recirculate the aqueous medium comprising metalhalide or metal sulfate in the lower oxidation state to the anodeelectrolyte.

In some embodiments, there is provided a system, comprising

an anode in contact with an anode electrolyte comprising metal ionwherein the anode is configured to oxidize the metal ion from a loweroxidation state to a higher oxidation state;

a cathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte;

a reactor operably connected to the anode chamber and configured toreact ethylene with the metal ion in the higher oxidation state in anaqueous medium to form one or more organic compounds comprising ethylenedichloride and metal ion in the lower oxidation state in the aqueousmedium, and

a separator operably connected to the reactor and the anode andconfigured to separate the one or more organic compounds from theaqueous medium comprising metal ion in the lower oxidation state, andrecirculate the aqueous medium comprising metal ion in the loweroxidation state to the anode electrolyte.

In some embodiments of the foregoing systems, the aqueous mediumcomprises more than 5 wt % water or more than 5.5 wt % or more than 6 wt% or between 5-90 wt % or between 5-95 wt % or between 5-99 wt % wateror between 5.5-90 wt % or between 5.5-95 wt % or between 5.5-99 wt %water or between 6-90 wt % or between 6-95 wt % or between 6-99 wt %water.

In some embodiments of the foregoing systems, the separator furthercomprises a recirculating system to recirculate the aqueous mediumcomprising metal ion in the lower oxidation state to the anodeelectrolyte.

In some embodiments of the foregoing systems, the one or more organiccompounds comprise one or more of chloroethanol, dichloroacetaldehyde,trichloroacetaldehyde, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments ofthe foregoing systems, the metal ion is copper. The metal ion in thelower oxidation state is Cu(I) and metal ion in the higher oxidationstate is Cu(II). In some embodiments of the foregoing systems, the metalhalide is copper halide and the metal sulfate is copper sulfate.

In some embodiments of the foregoing systems, the separator thatseparates the one or more organic compounds from the aqueous mediumcomprising metal ion in the lower oxidation state comprises one or moreadsorbents. In some embodiments of the foregoing systems, the separatoris activated charcoal. In some embodiments of the foregoing systems, theseparator is a polymer such as a polyolefin selected from, but notlimited to, polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polymethylpentene,polybutene-1, polyolefin elastomers, polyisobutylene, ethylene propylenerubber, polymethylacrylate, poly(methylmethacrylate),poly(isobutylmethacrylate), and combinations thereof. In someembodiments of the foregoing systems, the separator is polystyrene.

In some embodiments, there is provided a system, comprising

an anode in contact with an anode electrolyte comprising metal ionwherein the anode is configured to oxidize the metal ion from a loweroxidation state to a higher oxidation state;

a cathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte;

a reactor operably connected to the anode chamber and configured toreact the anode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in the higheroxidation state with an unsaturated hydrocarbon or saturated hydrocarbonin an aqueous medium to form one or more organic compounds comprisinghalogenated hydrocarbon and metal ion in the lower oxidation state inthe aqueous medium, and

a separator comprising one or more adsorbents operably connected to thereactor and the anode and configured to separate the one or more organiccompounds from the aqueous medium comprising metal ion in the loweroxidation state, and recirculate the aqueous medium comprising metal ionin the lower oxidation state to the anode electrolyte.

In some embodiments, there is provided a system, comprising

an anode in contact with an anode electrolyte comprising metal ionwherein the anode is configured to oxidize the metal ion from a loweroxidation state to a higher oxidation state;

a cathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte;

a reactor operably connected to the anode chamber and configured toreact ethylene with the metal ion in the higher oxidation state in anaqueous medium to form one or more organic compounds comprising ethylenedichloride and metal ion in the lower oxidation state in the aqueousmedium, and

a separator comprising one or more adsorbents operably connected to thereactor and the anode and configured to separate the one or more organiccompounds from the aqueous medium comprising metal ion in the loweroxidation state, and recirculate the aqueous medium comprising metal ionin the lower oxidation state to the anode electrolyte.

In some embodiments, in the foregoing systems, the adsorbent isactivated charcoal. In some embodiments, in the foregoing systems, theadsorbent is polyolefin such as, polystyrene.

In some embodiments of the foregoing systems, the adsorbent adsorbs morethan 90% w/w organic compounds; or more than 95% w/w organic compounds;or more than 99% w/w; or more than 99.99% w/w; or more than 99.999% w/worganic compound from the aqueous medium. In some embodiments of theforegoing systems, the aqueous medium obtained after passing through theadsorbent (which is recirculated back to the anode electrolyte) containsless than 100 ppm, or less than 50 ppm, or less than 10 ppm, or lessthan 1 ppm, of the organic compound.

In some embodiments of the above described systems, the cathode isconfigured to produce water, alkali, and/or hydrogen gas. In someembodiments of the above described systems, the cathode is an ODCconfigured to produce water. In some embodiments of the above describedsystems, the cathode is an ODC configured to produce alkali. In someembodiments of the above described systems, the cathode is configured toproduce hydrogen gas. In some embodiments of the above describedsystems, the cathode is an oxygen depolarizing cathode that isconfigured to reduce oxygen and water to hydroxide ions; the cathode isa hydrogen gas producing cathode that is configured to reduce water tohydrogen gas and hydroxide ions; the cathode is a hydrogen gas producingcathode that is configured to reduce hydrochloric acid to hydrogen gas;or the cathode is an oxygen depolarizing cathode that is configured toreact hydrochloric acid and oxygen gas to form water.

In some embodiments of the above described systems, the metal ion is anymetal ion described herein. In some embodiments of the above describedsystems, the metal ion is selected from the group consisting of iron,chromium, copper, tin, silver, cobalt, uranium, lead, mercury, vanadium,bismuth, titanium, ruthenium, osmium, europium, zinc, cadmium, gold,nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium, iridium, manganese, technetium,rhenium, molybdenum, tungsten, niobium, tantalum, zirconium, hafnium,and combination thereof. In some embodiments, the metal ion is selectedfrom the group consisting of iron, chromium, copper, and tin. In someembodiments, the metal ion is copper. In some embodiments, the loweroxidation state of the metal ion is 1+, 2+, 3+, 4+, or 5+. In someembodiments, the higher oxidation state of the metal ion is 2+, 3+, 4+,5+, or 6+.

In some embodiments, there is provided a system, comprising

an anode in contact with an anode electrolyte comprising copper ionwherein the anode is configured to oxidize the copper ion from a loweroxidation state to a higher oxidation state;

a cathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte;

a reactor operably connected to the anode chamber and configured toreact ethylene with the copper ion in the higher oxidation state in anaqueous medium to form one or more organic compounds comprising ethylenedichloride and copper ion in the lower oxidation state in the aqueousmedium,

a separator comprising one or more adsorbents selected from activatedcharcoal, polyolefin, activated silica, and combinations thereof,operably connected to the reactor and the anode and configured toseparate the one or more organic compounds from the aqueous mediumcomprising metal ion in the lower oxidation state and produce theaqueous medium comprising less than 100 ppm, or less than 50 ppm, orless than 10 ppm, or less than 1 ppm, of the organic compound and thecopper ion in the lower oxidation state, and

a recirculating system to recirculate a portion of the aqueous mediumcomprising metal ion in the lower oxidation state to the anodeelectrolyte.

In some embodiments of the systems described herein, the separator is aseries of beds or packed columns of the adsorbents connected to eachother.

In some embodiments of the foregoing systems, the recirculation systemmay be a conduit, pipe, tube etc. that may be used to transfer thesolutions. Appropriate control valves and computer control systems maybe associated with such recirculation systems.

In some embodiments, the above described systems are configured to notproduce chlorine gas at the anode. In some embodiments, the abovedescribed systems are configured to not require oxygen gas and/orchlorine gas for the chlorination of unsaturated or saturatedhydrocarbon to halogenated hydrocarbon.

In some system embodiments, the system further comprises a regeneratorthat regenerates the adsorbent after the adsorption of the organicproducts by using various desorption techniques including, but notlimited to, purging with an inert fluid (such as water), change ofchemical conditions such as pH, increase in temperature, reduction inpartial pressure, reduction in the concentration, purging with inert gasat high temperature, such as, but not limited to, purging with steam,nitrogen gas, argon gas, or air at >100° C., etc.

In some embodiments, the reactor and/or separator components in thesystems of the invention may include a control station, configured tocontrol the amount of the hydrocarbon introduced into the reactor, theamount of the anode electrolyte introduced into the reactor, the amountof the aqueous medium containing the organics and the metal ions intothe separator, the adsorption time over the adsorbents, the temperatureand pressure conditions in the reactor and the separator, the flow ratein and out of the reactor and the separator, the regeneration time forthe adsorbent in the separator, the time and the flow rate of theaqueous medium going back to the electrochemical cell, etc.

The control station may include a set of valves or multi-valve systemswhich are manually, mechanically or digitally controlled, or may employany other convenient flow regulator protocol. In some instances, thecontrol station may include a computer interface, (where regulation iscomputer-assisted or is entirely controlled by computer) configured toprovide a user with input and output parameters to control the amountand conditions, as described above.

The methods and systems of the invention may also include one or moredetectors configured for monitoring the flow of the ethylene gas or theconcentration of the metal ion in the aqueous medium or theconcentration of the organics in the aqueous medium, etc. Monitoring mayinclude, but is not limited to, collecting data about the pressure,temperature and composition of the aqueous medium and gases. Thedetectors may be any convenient device configured to monitor, forexample, pressure sensors (e.g., electromagnetic pressure sensors,potentiometric pressure sensors, etc.), temperature sensors (resistancetemperature detectors, thermocouples, gas thermometers, thermistors,pyrometers, infrared radiation sensors, etc.), volume sensors (e.g.,geophysical diffraction tomography, X-ray tomography, hydroacousticsurveyers, etc.), and devices for determining chemical makeup of theaqueous medium or the gas (e.g, IR spectrometer, NMR spectrometer,UV-vis spectrophotometer, high performance liquid chromatographs,inductively coupled plasma emission spectrometers, inductively coupledplasma mass spectrometers, ion chromatographs, X-ray diffractometers,gas chromatographs, gas chromatography-mass spectrometers,flow-injection analysis, scintillation counters, acidimetric titration,and flame emission spectrometers, etc.).

In some embodiments, detectors may also include a computer interfacewhich is configured to provide a user with the collected data about theaqueous medium, metal ions and/or the organics. For example, a detectormay determine the concentration of the aqueous medium, metal ions and/orthe organics and the computer interface may provide a summary of thechanges in the composition within the aqueous medium, metal ions and/orthe organics over time. In some embodiments, the summary may be storedas a computer readable data file or may be printed out as a userreadable document.

In some embodiments, the detector may be a monitoring device such thatit can collect real-time data (e.g., internal pressure, temperature,etc.) about the aqueous medium, metal ions and/or the organics. In otherembodiments, the detector may be one or more detectors configured todetermine the parameters of the aqueous medium, metal ions and/or theorganics at regular intervals, e.g., determining the composition every 1minute, every 5 minutes, every 10 minutes, every 30 minutes, every 60minutes, every 100 minutes, every 200 minutes, every 500 minutes, orsome other interval.

In some embodiments, the electrochemical systems and methods describedherein include the aqueous medium containing more than 5 wt % water. Insome embodiments, the aqueous medium includes more than 5 wt % water; ormore than 6 wt %; or more than 8 wt % water; or more than 10 wt % water;or more than 15 wt % water; or more than 20 wt % water; or more than 25wt % water; or more than 50 wt % water; or more than 60 wt % water; ormore than 70 wt % water; or more than 80 wt % water; or more than 90 wt% water; or about 99 wt % water; or between 5-100 wt % water; or between5-99 wt % water; or between 5-90 wt % water; or between 5-80 wt % water;or between 5-70 wt % water; or between 5-60 wt % water; or between 5-50wt % water; or between 5-40 wt % water; or between 5-30 wt % water; orbetween 5-20 wt % water; or between 5-10 wt % water; or between 6-100 wt% water; or between 6-99 wt % water; or between 6-90 wt % water; orbetween 6-80 wt % water; or between 6-70 wt % water; or between 6-60 wt% water; or between 6-50 wt % water; or between 6-40 wt % water; orbetween 6-30 wt % water; or between 6-20 wt % water; or between 6-10 wt% water; or between 8-100 wt % water; or between 8-99 wt % water; orbetween 8-90 wt % water; or between 8-80 wt % water; or between 8-70 wt% water; or between 8-60 wt % water; or between 8-50 wt % water; orbetween 8-40 wt % water; or between 8-30 wt % water; or between 8-20 wt% water; or between 8-10 wt % water; or between 10-100 wt % water; orbetween 10-75 wt % water; or between 10-50 wt % water; or between 20-100wt % water; or between 20-50 wt % water; or between 50-100 wt % water;or between 50-75 wt % water; or between 50-60 wt % water; or between70-100 wt % water; or between 70-90 wt % water; or between 80-100 wt %water. In some embodiments, the aqueous medium may comprise a watersoluble organic solvent.

In some embodiments of the methods and systems described herein, theamount of total metal ion in the anode electrolyte or the amount ofcopper in the anode electrolyte or the amount of iron in the anodeelectrolyte or the amount of chromium in the anode electrolyte or theamount of tin in the anode electrolyte or the amount of platinum or theamount of metal ion that is contacted with the unsaturated or saturatedhydrocarbon is between 1-12M; or between 1-11M; or between 1-10M; orbetween 1-9M; or between 1-8M; or between 1-7M; or between 1-6M; orbetween 1-5M; or between 1-4M; or between 1-3M; or between 1-2M; orbetween 2-12M; or between 2-11M; or between 2-10M; or between 2-9M; orbetween 2-8M; or between 2-7M; or between 2-6M; or between 2-5M; orbetween 2-4M; or between 2-3M; or between 3-12M; or between 3-11M; orbetween 3-10M; or between 3-9M; or between 3-8M; or between 3-7M; orbetween 3-6M; or between 3-5M; or between 3-4M; or between 4-12M; orbetween 4-11M; or between 4-10M; or between 4-9M; or between 4-8M; orbetween 4-7M; or between 4-6M; or between 4-5M; or between 5-12M; orbetween 5-11M; or between 5-10M; or between 5-9M; or between 5-8M; orbetween 5-7M; or between 5-6M; or between 6-12M; or between 6-11M; orbetween 6-10M; or between 6-9M; or between 6-8M; or between 6-7M; orbetween 7-12M; or between 7-11M; or between 7-10M; or between 7-9M; orbetween 7-8M; or between 8-12M; or between 8-11M; or between 8-10M; orbetween 8-9M; or between 9-12M; or between 9-11M; or between 9-10M; orbetween 10-12M; or between 10-11M; or between 11-12M. In someembodiments, the amount of total ion in the anode electrolyte, asdescribed above, is the amount of the metal ion in the lower oxidationstate plus the amount of the metal ion in the higher oxidation state; orthe total amount of the metal ion in the higher oxidation state; or thetotal amount of the metal ion in the lower oxidation state.

In some embodiments of the methods and systems described herein, theanode electrolyte containing the metal ion may contain a mixture of themetal ion in the lower oxidation state and the metal ion in the higheroxidation state. In some embodiments, it may be desirable to have a mixof the metal ion in the lower oxidation state and the metal ion in thehigher oxidation state in the anode electrolyte. In some embodiments,the anode electrolyte that is contacted with the unsaturated orsaturated hydrocarbon contains the metal ion in the lower oxidationstate and the metal ion in the higher oxidation state. In someembodiments, the metal ion in the lower oxidation state and the metalion in the higher oxidation state are present in a ratio such that thereaction of the metal ion with the unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbonto form halo or sulfohydrocarbon takes place. In some embodiments, theratio of the metal ion in the higher oxidation state to the metal ion inthe lower oxidation state is between 20:1 to 1:20, or between 14:1 to1:2; or between 14:1 to 8:1; or between 14:1 to 7:1: or between 2:1 to1:2; or between 1:1 to 1:2; or between 4:1 to 1:2; or between 7:1 to1:2.

In some embodiments of the methods and systems described herein, theanode electrolyte in the electrochemical systems and methods of theinvention contains the metal ion in the higher oxidation state in therange of 4-7M, the metal ion in the lower oxidation state in the rangeof 0.1-2M and sodium chloride in the range of 1-3M. The anodeelectrolyte may optionally contain 0.01-0.1M hydrochloric acid. In someembodiments of the methods and systems described herein, the anodeelectrolyte reacted with the hydrogen gas or the unsaturated orsaturated hydrocarbon contains the metal ion in the higher oxidationstate in the range of 4-7M, the metal ion in the lower oxidation statein the range of 0.1-2M and sodium chloride in the range of 1-3M. Theanode electrolyte may optionally contain 0.01-0.1M hydrochloric acid.

In some embodiments of the methods and systems described herein, theanode electrolyte may contain another cation in addition to the metalion. Other cation includes, but is not limited to, alkaline metal ionsand/or alkaline earth metal ions, such as but not limited to, lithium,sodium, calcium, magnesium, etc. The amount of the other cation added tothe anode electrolyte may be between 0.01-5M; or between 0.01-1M; orbetween 0.05-1M; or between 0.5-2M; or between 1-5M.

In some embodiments of the methods and systems described herein, theanode electrolyte may contain an acid. The acid may be added to theanode electrolyte to bring the pH of the anolyte to 1 or 2 or less. Theacid may be hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid.

The systems provided herein include a reactor operably connected to theanode chamber. The reactor is configured to contact the metal chloridein the anode electrolyte with the hydrogen gas or the unsaturated orsaturated hydrocarbon. The reactor may be any means for contacting themetal chloride in the anode electrolyte with the hydrogen gas or theunsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon. Such means or such reactor arewell known in the art and include, but not limited to, pipe, duct, tank,series of tanks, container, tower, conduit, and the like. Some examplesof such reactors are described in FIGS. 7A, 7B, 10A, and 10B herein. Thereactor may be equipped with one or more of controllers to controltemperature sensor, pressure sensor, control mechanisms, inert gasinjector, etc. to monitor, control, and/or facilitate the reaction. Insome embodiments, the reaction between the metal chloride with metal ionin higher oxidation state and the unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon,are carried out in the reactor at the temperature of between 100-200° C.or between 100-175° C. or between 150-175° C. and pressure of between100-500 psig or between 100-400 psig or between 100-300 psig or between150-350 psig. In some embodiments, the components of the reactor arelined with Teflon to prevent corrosion of the components. Some examplesof the reactors for carrying out the reaction of the metal ion in thehigher oxidation state with the hydrogen gas are illustrated in FIGS. 7Aand 7B.

In some embodiments, the unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon may beadministered to the anode chamber where the metal halide or metalsulfate with metal in the higher oxidation state reacts with theunsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon to form respective products insidethe anode chamber. In some embodiments, the unsaturated or saturatedhydrocarbon may be administered to the anode chamber where the metalchloride with metal in the higher oxidation state reacts with theunsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon to form chlorohydrocarbon. Suchsystems include the unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon delivery systemwhich is operably connected to the anode chamber and is configured todeliver the unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon to the anode chamber.The unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon may be a solid, liquid, or agas. The unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon may be supplied to theanode using any means for directing the unsaturated or saturatedhydrocarbon from the external source to the anode chamber. Such meansfor directing the unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon from the externalsource to the anode chamber or the unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbondelivery system are well known in the art and include, but not limitedto, pipe, tanks, duct, conduit, and the like. In some embodiments, thesystem or the unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon delivery systemincludes a duct that directs the unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbonfrom the external source to the anode. It is to be understood that theunsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon may be directed to the anode fromthe bottom of the cell, top of the cell or sideways. In someembodiments, the unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon gas is directed tothe anode in such a way that the unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbongas is not in direct contact with the anolyte. In some embodiments, theunsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon may be directed to the anodethrough multiple entry ports. The source of unsaturated or saturatedhydrocarbon that provides unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon to theanode chamber, in the methods and systems provided herein, includes anysource of unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon known in the art. Suchsources include, without limitation, commercial grade unsaturated orsaturated hydrocarbon and/or unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbongenerating plants, such as, petrochemical refinery industry.

In some embodiments, there are provided methods and systems where theelectrochemical cells of the invention are set up on-site whereunsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon is generated, such as refinery forcarrying out the halogenations, such as chlorination of the unsaturatedor saturated hydrocarbon. In some embodiments, the metal ion containinganolyte from the electrochemical system is transported to the refinerywhere the unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon is formed for carryingout the halogenations, such as chlorination of the unsaturated orsaturated hydrocarbon. In some embodiments, the methods and systems ofthe invention can utilize the ethylene gas from the refineries withoutthe need for the filtration or cleaning of the ethylene gas. Typically,the ethylene gas generating plants scrub the gas to get rid of theimpurities. In some embodiments of the methods and systems of theinvention, such pre-scrubbing of the gas is not needed and can beavoided.

In some embodiments, the metal generation and the halogenations, such aschlorination reaction takes place in the same anode chamber. Anillustrative example of such embodiment is depicted in FIG. 9. It is tobe understood that the system 900 of FIG. 9 is for illustration purposesonly and other metal ions with different oxidations states, otherunsaturated or saturated hydrocarbons, other electrochemical systemsforming products other than alkali, such as water or hydrogen gas in thecathode chamber, and other unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon gases,are equally applicable to the system. In some embodiments, asillustrated in FIG. 9, the electrochemical system 900 includes an anodesituated near the AEM. The system 900 also includes a gas diffusionlayer (GDL). The anode electrolyte is in contact with the anode on oneside and the GDL on the other side. In some embodiments, the anode maybe situated to minimize the resistance from the anolyte, for example,the anode may be situated close to AEM or bound to AEM. In someembodiments, the anode converts metal ions from the lower oxidationstate to the metal ions in the higher oxidation states. For example, theanode converts metal ions from 1+ oxidation state to 2+ oxidation state.The Cu²⁺ ions combine with chloride ions to form CuCl₂. The ethylene gasis pressurized into a gaseous chamber on one side of the GDL. Theethylene gas then diffuses through the gas diffusion layer and reactswith metal chloride in the higher oxidation state to formchlorohydrocarbon, such as ethylene dichloride. The metal chloride CuCl₂in turn undergoes reduction to lower oxidation state to form CuCl. Insome embodiments, the anode electrolyte may be withdrawn and theethylene dichloride may be separated from the anode electrolyte usingseparation techniques well known in the art, including, but not limitedto, filtration, vacuum distillation, fractional distillation, fractionalcrystallization, ion exchange resin, etc. In some embodiments, theethylene dichloride may be denser than the anode electrolyte and mayform a separate layer inside the anode chamber. In such embodiments, theethylene dichloride may be removed from the bottom of the cell. In someembodiments, the gaseous chamber on one side of GDL may be vented toremove the gas. In some embodiments, the anode chamber may be vented toremove the gaseous ethylene or gaseous byproducts. The system 900 alsoincludes an oxygen depolarized cathode that produces hydroxide ions fromwater and oxygen. The hydroxide ions may be subjected to any of thecarbonate precipitation processes described herein. In some embodiments,the cathode is not a gas-diffusion cathode but is a cathode as describedin FIG. 4A or 4B. In some embodiments, the system 900 may be applied toany electrochemical system that produces alkali.

In some embodiments of the system and method described herein, no gas isformed at the cathode. In some embodiments of the system and methoddescribed herein, hydrogen gas is formed at the cathode. In someembodiments of the system and method described herein, no gas is formedat the anode. In some embodiments of the system and method describedherein, no gas is used at the anode other than the gaseous unsaturatedor saturated hydrocarbon.

Another illustrative example of the reactor that is connected to theelectrochemical system is illustrated in FIG. 10A. As illustrated inFIG. 10A, the anode chamber of the electrochemical system(electrochemical system can be any electrochemical system describedherein) is connected to a reactor which is also connected to a source ofunsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon, an example illustrated as ethylene(C₂H₄) in FIG. 10A. In some embodiments, the electrochemical system andthe reactor are inside the same unit and are connected inside the unit.The anode electrolyte, containing the metal ion in the higher oxidationstate optionally with the metal ion in the lower oxidation state, alongwith ethylene are fed to a prestressed (e.g., brick-lined) reactor. Thechlorination of ethylene takes place inside the reactor to form ethylenedichloride (EDC or dichloroethane DCE) and the metal ion in the loweroxidation state. The reactor may operate in the range of 340-360° F. and200-300 psig. Other reactor conditions, such as, but not limited to,metal ion concentration, ratio of metal ion in the lower oxidation stateto the metal ion in the higher oxidation state, partial pressures of DCEand water vapor can be set to assure high selectivity operation.Reaction heat may be removed by vaporizing water. In some embodiments, acooling surface may not be required in the reactor and thus notemperature gradients or close temperature control may be needed. Thereactor effluent gases may be quenched with water (shown as “quench”reactor in FIG. 10A) in the prestressed (e.g., brick-lined) packedtower. The liquid leaving the tower maybe cooled further and separatedinto the aqueous phase and DCE phase. The aqueous phase may be splitpart being recycled to the tower as quench water and the remainder maybe recycled to the reactor or the electrochemical system. The DCEproduct may be cooled further and flashed to separate out more water anddissolved ethylene. This dissolved ethylene may be recycled as shown inFIG. 10A. The uncondensed gases from the quench tower may be recycled tothe reactor, except for the purge stream to remove inerts. The purgestream may go through the ethylene recovery system to keep the overallutilization of ethylene high, e.g., as high as 95%. Experimentaldeterminations may be made of flammability limits for ethylene gas atactual process temperature, pressure and compositions. The constructionmaterial of the plant may include prestressed brick linings, HastealloysB and C, inconel, dopant grade titanium (e.g. AKOT, Grade II), tantalum,Kynar, Teflon, PEEK, glass, or other polymers or plastics. The reactormay also be designed to continuously flow the anode electrolyte in andout of the reactor.

Another illustrative example of the reactor that is connected to theelectrochemical system is as illustrated in FIG. 10B. As illustrated inFIG. 10B, the reactor system 1000 is a glass vessel A, suspended fromthe top portion of a metal flange B, connected to an exit line C, bymeans of a metal ball socket welded to the head of the flange. The glassreactor is encased in an electrically heated metal shell, D. The heatinput and the temperature may be controlled by an automatic temperatureregulator. The hydrocarbon may be introduced into the metal shellthrough an opening E and through the glass tube F, which may be fittedwith a fitted glass foot. This arrangement may provide for pressureequalization on both sides of the glass reactor. The hydrocarbon maycome into contact with the metal solution (metal in higher oxidationstate) at the bottom of the reactor and may bubble through the medium.The volatile products, water vapor, and/or unreacted hydrocarbon mayleave via line C, equipped optionally with valve H which may reduce thepressure to atmosphere. The exiting gases may be passed through anappropriate trapping system to remove the product. The apparatus mayalso be fitted with a bypass arrangement G, which permits the passage ofthe gas through the pressure zone without passing through the aqueousmetal medium. In some embodiments, the reduced metal ions in loweroxidation state that are left in the vessel, are subjected toelectrolysis, as described herein, to regenerate the metal ions in thehigher oxidation state.

An illustrative embodiment of the invention is as shown in FIG. 11. Asillustrated in FIG. 11, the electrochemical system 600 of FIG. 6 (oralternatively system 400 of FIG. 4A) may be integrated with CuCl—HClelectrochemical system 1100 (also illustrated as system in FIG. 4B). Inthe CuCl—HCl electrochemical system 1100, the input at the anode is CuCland HCl which results in CuCl₂ and hydrogen ions. The hydrogen ions passthrough a proton exchange membrane to the cathode where it formshydrogen gas. In some embodiments, chloride conducting membranes mayalso be used. In some embodiments, it is contemplated that the CuCl—HClcell may run at 0.5V or less and the system 600 may run at 0V or less.Some deviations from the contemplated voltage may occur due toresistance losses.

In one aspect, in the systems and methods provided herein, the CuCl₂formed in the anode electrolyte may be used for copper production. Forexample, the CuCl₂ formed in the systems and methods of the inventionmay be used for leaching process to extract copper from the copperminerals. For example only, chalcopyrite is a copper mineral which canbe leached in chloride milieu with the help of an oxidizer, Cu²⁺.Divalent copper may leach the copper of chalcopyrite and other sulfides.Other minerals such as iron, sulfur, gold, silver etc. can be recoveredonce copper is leached out. In some embodiments, CuCl₂ produced by theelectrochemical cells described herein, may be added to the coppermineral concentrate. The Cu²⁺ ions may oxidize the copper mineral andform CuCl. The CuCl solution from the concentrate may be fed back to theanode chamber of the electrochemical cell described herein which mayconvert CuCl to CuCl₂. The CuCl₂ may be then fed back to the mineralconcentrate to further oxidize the copper mineral. Once the copper isleached out, the silver may be cemented out along with furtherprecipitation of zinc, lead etc. The copper may be then precipitated outas copper oxide by treatment with alkali which alkali may be produced bythe cathode chamber of the electrochemical cell. After the precipitationof copper as oxide, the filtrate NaCl may be returned to theelectrochemical cell. The hydrogen gas generated at the cathode may beused for the reduction of the copper oxide to form metallic copper (athigh temp.). The molten copper may be cast into copper products likecopper wire rod. This method can be used for low grade ores or forvarious types of copper minerals. The electrochemical plant may befitted close to the quarry or close to the concentrator eliminatingtransportation cost for waste products and allowing transportation ofvaluable metal products only.

The processes and systems described herein may be batch processes orsystems or continuous flow processes or systems.

The reaction of the hydrogen gas or the unsaturated or saturatedhydrocarbon with the metal ion in the higher oxidation state, asdescribed in the aspects and embodiments herein, is carried out in theaqueous medium. In some embodiments, such reaction may be in anon-aqueous liquid medium which may be a solvent for the hydrocarbon orhydrogen gas feedstock. The liquid medium or solvent may be aqueous ornon-aqueous. Suitable non-aqueous solvents being polar and non-polaraprotic solvents, for example dimethylformamide (DMF),dimethylsulphoxide (DMSO), halogenated hydrocarbons, for example only,dichloromethane, carbon tetrachloride, and 1,2-dichloroethane, andorganic nitriles, for example, acetonitrile. Organic solvents maycontain a nitrogen atom capable of forming a chemical bond with themetal in the lower oxidation state thereby imparting enhanced stabilityto the metal ion in the lower oxidation state. In some embodiments,acetonitrile is the organic solvent.

In some embodiments, when the organic solvent is used for the reactionbetween the metal ion in the higher oxidation state with the hydrogengas or hydrocarbon, the water may need to be removed from the metalcontaining medium. As such, the metal ion obtained from theelectrochemical systems described herein may contain water. In someembodiments, the water may be removed from the metal ion containingmedium by azeotropic distillation of the mixture. In some embodiments,the solvent containing the metal ion in the higher oxidation state andthe hydrogen gas or the unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon may containbetween 5-90%; or 5-80%; or 5-70%; or 5-60%; or 5-50%; or 5-40%; or5-30%; or 5-20%; or 5-10% by weight of water in the reaction medium. Theamount of water which may be tolerated in the reaction medium may dependupon the particular halide carrier in the medium, the tolerable amountof water being greater, for example, for copper chloride than for ferricchloride. Such azeotropic distillation may be avoided when the aqueousmedium is used in the reactions.

In some embodiments, the reaction of the metal ion in the higheroxidation state with the hydrogen gas or the unsaturated or saturatedhydrocarbon may take place when the reaction temperature is above 50° C.up to 350° C. In aqueous media, the reaction may be carried out under asuper atmospheric pressure of up to 1000 psi or less to maintain thereaction medium in liquid phase at a temperature of from 50° C. to 200°C., typically from about 120° C. to about 180° C.

In some embodiments, the reaction of the metal ion in the higheroxidation state with the unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon mayinclude a halide carrier. In some embodiments, the ratio of halideion:total metal ion in the higher oxidation state is 1:1; or greaterthan 1:1; or 1.5:1; or greater than 2:1 and or at least 3:1. Thus, forexample, the ratio in cupric halide solutions in concentratedhydrochloric acid may be about 2:1 or 3:1. In some embodiments, owing tothe high rate of usage of the halide carrier it may be desired to usethe metal halides in high concentration and to employ saturated ornear-saturated solutions of the metal halides. If desired, the solutionsmay be buffered to maintain the pH at the desired level during thehalogenation reaction.

In some embodiments, a non-halide salt of the metal may be added to thesolution containing metal ion in the higher oxidation state. The addedmetal salt may be soluble in the metal halide solution. Examples ofsuitable salts for incorporating in cupric chloride solutions include,but are not limited to, copper sulphate, copper nitrate and coppertetrafluoroborate. In some embodiments a metal halide may be added thatis different from the metal halide employed in the methods and systems.For example, ferric chloride may be added to the cupric chloride systemsat the time of halogenations of the unsaturated hydrocarbon.

The unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon feedstock may be fed to thehalogenation vessel continuously or intermittently. Efficienthalogenation may be dependent upon achieving intimate contact betweenthe feedstock and the metal ion in solution and the halogenationreaction may be carried out by a technique designed to improve ormaximize such contact. The metal ion solution may be agitated bystirring or shaking or any desired technique, e.g. the reaction may becarried out in a column, such as a packed column, or a trickle-bedreactor or reactors described herein. For example, where the unsaturatedor saturated hydrocarbon is gaseous, a counter-current technique may beemployed wherein the unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon is passedupwardly through a column or reactor and the metal ion solution ispassed downwardly through the column or reactor. In addition toenhancing contact of the unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon and themetal ion in the solution, the techniques described herein may alsoenhance the rate of dissolution of the unsaturated or saturatedhydrocarbon in the solution, as may be desirable in the case where thesolution is aqueous and the water-solubility of the unsaturated orsaturated hydrocarbon is low. Dissolution of the feedstock may also beassisted by higher pressures.

Mixtures of saturated, unsaturated hydrocarbons and/or partiallyhalogenated hydrocarbons may be employed. In some embodiments,partially-halogenated products of the process of the invention which arecapable of further halogenation may be recirculated to the reactionvessel through a product-recovery stage and, if appropriate, a metal ionin the lower oxidation state regeneration stage. In some embodiments,the halogenation reaction may continue outside the halogenation reactionvessel, for example in a separate regeneration vessel, and care may needto be exercised in controlling the reaction to avoid over-halogenationof the unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon.

In some embodiments, the electrochemical systems described herein areset up close to the plant that produces the unsaturated or saturatedhydrocarbon or that produces hydrogen gas. In some embodiments, theelectrochemical systems described herein are set up close to the PVCplant. For example, in some embodiments, the electrochemical system iswithin the radius of 100 miles near the ethylene gas, hydrogen gas,vinyl chloride monomer, and/or PVC plant. In some embodiments, theelectrochemical systems described herein are set up inside or outsidethe ethylene plant for the reaction of the ethylene with the metal ion.In some embodiments, the plants described as above are retrofitted withthe electrochemical systems described herein. In some embodiments, theanode electrolyte containing the metal ion in the higher oxidation stateis transported to the site of the plants described above. In someembodiments, the anode electrolyte containing the metal ion in thehigher oxidation state is transported to within 100 miles of the site ofthe plants described above. In some embodiments, the electrochemicalsystems described herein are set up close to the plants as describedabove as well as close to the source of divalent cations such that thealkali generated in the cathode electrolyte is reacted with the divalentcations to form carbonate/bicarbonate products. In some embodiments, theelectrochemical systems described herein are set up close to the plantsas described above, close to the source of divalent cations and/or thesource of carbon dioxide such that the alkali generated in the cathodeelectrolyte is able to sequester carbon dioxide to formcarbonate/bicarbonate products. In some embodiments, the carbon dioxidegenerated by the refinery that forms the unsaturated or saturatedhydrocarbon is used in the electrochemical systems or is used in theprecipitation of carbonate/bicarbonate products. Accordingly, in someembodiments, the electrochemical systems described herein are set upclose to the plants as described above, close to the source of divalentcations and/or the source of carbon dioxide such as, refineriesproducing the unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon, such that the alkaligenerated in the cathode electrolyte is able to sequester carbon dioxideto form carbonate/bicarbonate products.

Any number of halo or sulfohydrocarbons may be generated from thereaction of the metal chloride in the higher oxidation state with theunsaturated or saturated hydrocarbons, as described herein. Thechlorohydrocarbons may be used in chemical and/or manufacturingindustries. Chlorohydrocarbons may be used as chemical intermediates orsolvents. Solvent uses include a wide variety of applications, includingmetal and fabric cleaning, extraction of fats and oils, and reactionmedia for chemical synthesis.

In some embodiments, the unsaturated hydrocarbon such as ethylene isreacted with the metal chloride in the higher oxidation state to formethylene dichloride. Ethylene dichloride may be used for variety ofpurposes including, but not limited to, making chemicals involved inplastics, rubber and synthetic textile fibers, such as, but not limitedto, vinyl chloride, tri- and tetra-chloroethylene, vinylidene chloride,trichloroethane, ethylene glycol, diaminoethylene, polyvinyl chloride,nylon, viscose rayon, styrene-butadiene rubber, and various plastics; asa solvent used as degreaser and paint remover; as a solvent for resins,asphalt, bitumen, rubber, fats, oils, waxes, gums, photography,photocopying, cosmetics, leather cleaning, and drugs; fumigant forgrains, orchards, mushroom houses, upholstery, and carpet; as a picklingagent; as a building block reagent as an intermediate in the productionof various organic compounds such as, ethylenediamine; as a source ofchlorine with elimination of ethene and chloride; as a precursor to1,1,1-trichloroethane which is used in dry cleaning; as an anti-knockadditive in leaded fuels; used in extracting spices such as annatto,paprika and turmeric; as a diluent for pesticide; in paint, coatings,and adhesives; and combination thereof.

In the methods and systems described herein, in some embodiments, nohydrochloric acid is formed in the anode chamber. In the methods andsystems described herein, in some embodiments, no gas is formed at theanode. In the methods and systems described herein, in some embodiments,no gas is used at the anode. In the methods and systems describedherein, in some embodiments, hydrogen gas is formed at the cathode. Inthe methods and systems described herein, in some embodiments, nohydrogen gas is formed at the cathode.

In some embodiments, a wire is connected between the cathode and theanode for the current to pass through the cell. In such embodiments, thecell may act as a battery and the current generated through the cell maybe used to generate alkali which is withdrawn from the cell. In someembodiments, the resistance of the cell may go up and the current may godown. In such embodiments, a voltage may be applied to theelectrochemical cell. The resistance of the cell may increase forvarious reasons including, but not limited to, corrosion of theelectrodes, solution resistance, fouling of membrane, etc. In someembodiments, current may be drawn from the cell using an amperic load.

In some embodiments, the systems provided herein result in low to zerovoltage systems that generate alkali as compared to chlor-alkali processor chlor-alkali process with ODC or any other process that oxidizesmetal ions from lower oxidation state to the higher oxidation state inthe anode chamber. In some embodiments, the systems described herein runat voltage of less than 2V; or less than 1.2V; or less than 1.1V; orless than 1V; or less than 0.9V; or less than 0.8V; or less than 0.7V;or less than 0.6V; or less than 0.5V; or less than 0.4V; or less than0.3V; or less than 0.2V; or less than 0.1V; or at zero volts; or between0-1.2V; or between 0-1V; or between 0-0.5 V; or between 0.5-1V; orbetween 0.5-2V; or between 0-0.1 V; or between 0.1-1V; or between0.1-2V; or between 0.01-0.5V; or between 0.01-1.2V; or between 1-1.2V;or between 0.2-1V; or 0V; or 0.5V; or 0.6V; or 0.7V; or 0.8V; or 0.9V;or 1V.

As used herein, the “voltage” includes a voltage or a bias applied to ordrawn from an electrochemical cell that drives a desired reactionbetween the anode and the cathode in the electrochemical cell. In someembodiments, the desired reaction may be the electron transfer betweenthe anode and the cathode such that an alkaline solution, water, orhydrogen gas is formed in the cathode electrolyte and the metal ion isoxidized at the anode. In some embodiments, the desired reaction may bethe electron transfer between the anode and the cathode such that themetal ion in the higher oxidation state is formed in the anodeelectrolyte from the metal ion in the lower oxidation state. The voltagemay be applied to the electrochemical cell by any means for applying thecurrent across the anode and the cathode of the electrochemical cell.Such means are well known in the art and include, without limitation,devices, such as, electrical power source, fuel cell, device powered bysun light, device powered by wind, and combination thereof. The type ofelectrical power source to provide the current can be any power sourceknown to one skilled in the art. For example, in some embodiments, thevoltage may be applied by connecting the anodes and the cathodes of thecell to an external direct current (DC) power source. The power sourcecan be an alternating current (AC) rectified into DC. The DC powersource may have an adjustable voltage and current to apply a requisiteamount of the voltage to the electrochemical cell.

In some embodiments, the current applied to the electrochemical cell isat least 50 mA/cm²; or at least 100 mA/cm²; or at least 150 mA/cm²; orat least 200 mA/cm²; or at least 500 mA/cm²; or at least 1000 mA/cm²; orat least 1500 mA/cm²; or at least 2000 mA/cm²; or at least 2500 mA/cm²;or between 100-2500 mA/cm²; or between 100-2000 mA/cm²; or between100-1500 mA/cm²; or between 100-1000 mA/cm²; or between 100-500 mA/cm²;or between 200-2500 mA/cm²; or between 200-2000 mA/cm²; or between200-1500 mA/cm²; or between 200-1000 mA/cm²; or between 200-500 mA/cm²;or between 500-2500 mA/cm²; or between 500-2000 mA/cm²; or between500-1500 mA/cm²; or between 500-1000 mA/cm²; or between 1000-2500mA/cm²; or between 1000-2000 mA/cm²; or between 1000-1500 mA/cm²; orbetween 1500-2500 mA/cm²; or between 1500-2000 mA/cm²; or between2000-2500 mA/cm².

In some embodiments, the cell runs at voltage of between 0-3V when theapplied current is 100-250 mA/cm² or 100-150 mA/cm² or 100-200 mA/cm² or100-300 mA/cm² or 100-400 mA/cm² or 100-500 mA/cm² or 150-200 mA/cm² or200-150 mA/cm² or 200-300 mA/cm² or 200-400 mA/cm² or 200-500 mA/cm² or150 mA/cm² or 200 mA/cm² or 300 mA/cm² or 400 mA/cm² or 500 mA/cm² or600 mA/cm². In some embodiments, the cell runs at between 0-1V. In someembodiments, the cell runs at between 0-1.5V when the applied current is100-250 mA/cm² or 100-150 mA/cm² or 150-200 mA/cm² or 150 mA/cm² or 200mA/cm². In some embodiments, the cell runs at between 0-1V at an ampericload of 100-250 mA/cm² or 100-150 mA/cm² or 150-200 mA/cm² or 150 mA/cm²or 200 mA/cm². In some embodiments, the cell runs at 0.5V at a currentor an amperic load of 100-250 mA/cm² or 100-150 mA/cm² or 150-200 mA/cm²or 150 mA/cm² or 200 mA/cm².

In some embodiments, the systems and methods provided herein furtherinclude a percolator and/or a spacer between the anode and the ionexchange membrane and/or the cathode and the ion exchange membrane. Theelectrochemical systems containing percolator and/or spacers aredescribed in U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/442,573, filed Feb. 14,2011, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety in thepresent disclosure.

The systems provided herein are applicable to or can be used for any ofone or more methods described herein. In some embodiments, the systemsprovided herein further include an oxygen gas supply or delivery systemoperably connected to the cathode chamber. The oxygen gas deliverysystem is configured to provide oxygen gas to the gas-diffusion cathode.In some embodiments, the oxygen gas delivery system is configured todeliver gas to the gas-diffusion cathode where reduction of the gas iscatalyzed to hydroxide ions. In some embodiments, the oxygen gas andwater are reduced to hydroxide ions; un-reacted oxygen gas in the systemis recovered; and re-circulated to the cathode. The oxygen gas may besupplied to the cathode using any means for directing the oxygen gasfrom the external source to the cathode. Such means for directing theoxygen gas from the external source to the cathode or the oxygen gasdelivery system are well known in the art and include, but not limitedto, pipe, duct, conduit, and the like. In some embodiments, the systemor the oxygen gas delivery system includes a duct that directs theoxygen gas from the external source to the cathode. It is to beunderstood that the oxygen gas may be directed to the cathode from thebottom of the cell, top of the cell or sideways. In some embodiments,the oxygen gas is directed to the back side of the cathode where theoxygen gas is not in direct contact with the catholyte. In someembodiments, the oxygen gas may be directed to the cathode throughmultiple entry ports. The source of oxygen that provides oxygen gas tothe gas-diffusion cathode, in the methods and systems provided herein,includes any source of oxygen known in the art. Such sources include,without limitation, ambient air, commercial grade oxygen gas fromcylinders, oxygen gas obtained by fractional distillation of liquefiedair, oxygen gas obtained by passing air through a bed of zeolites,oxygen gas obtained from electrolysis of water, oxygen obtained byforcing air through ceramic membranes based on zirconium dioxides byeither high pressure or electric current, chemical oxygen generators,oxygen gas as a liquid in insulated tankers, or combination thereof. Insome embodiments, the source of oxygen may also provide carbon dioxidegas. In some embodiments, the oxygen from the source of oxygen gas maybe purified before being administered to the cathode chamber. In someembodiments, the oxygen from the source of oxygen gas is used as is inthe cathode chamber.

Alkali in the Cathode Chamber

The cathode electrolyte containing the alkali maybe withdrawn from thecathode chamber. The alkali may be separated from the cathodeelectrolyte using techniques known in the art, including but not limitedto, diffusion dialysis. In some embodiments, the alkali produced in themethods and systems provided herein, is used as is commercially or isused in commercial processes known in the art. The purity of the alkaliformed in the methods and systems may vary depending on the end userequirements. For example, methods and systems provided herein that usean electrochemical cell equipped with membranes, may form a membranequality alkali which may be substantially free of impurities. In someembodiments, a less pure alkali may also be formed by avoiding the useof membranes or by adding the carbon to the cathode electrolyte. In someembodiments, the alkali formed in the cathode electrolyte is more than2% w/w or more than 5% w/w or between 5-50% w/w.

In some embodiments, the alkali produced in the cathode chamber may beused in various commercial processes, as described herein. In someembodiments, the system appropriate to such uses may be operativelyconnected to the electrochemical unit, or the alkali may be transportedto the appropriate site for use. In some embodiments, the systemsinclude a collector configured to collect the alkali from the cathodechamber and connect it to the appropriate process which may be any meansto collect and process the alkali including, but not limited to, tanks,collectors, pipes etc. that can collect, process, and/or transfer thealkali produced in the cathode chamber for use in the various commercialprocesses.

In some embodiments, the alkali, such as, sodium hydroxide produced inthe cathode electrolyte is used as is for commercial purposes or istreated in variety of ways well known in the art. For example, sodiumhydroxide formed in the catholyte may be used as a base in the chemicalindustry, in household, and/or in the manufacture of pulp, paper,textiles, drinking water, soaps, detergents and drain cleaner. In someembodiments, the sodium hydroxide may be used in making paper. Alongwith sodium sulfide, sodium hydroxide may be a component of the whiteliquor solution used to separate lignin from cellulose fibers in theKraft process. It may also be useful in several later stages of theprocess of bleaching the brown pulp resulting from the pulping process.These stages may include oxygen delignification, oxidative extraction,and simple extraction, all of which may require a strong alkalineenvironment with a pH>10.5 at the end of the stages. In someembodiments, the sodium hydroxide may be used to digest tissues. Thisprocess may involve placing of a carcass into a sealed chamber and thenputting the carcass in a mixture of sodium hydroxide and water, whichmay break chemical bonds keeping the body intact. In some embodiments,the sodium hydroxide may be used in Bayer process where the sodiumhydroxide is used in the refining of alumina containing ores (bauxite)to produce alumina (aluminium oxide). The alumina is the raw materialthat may be used to produce aluminium metal via the electrolyticHall-Héroult process. The alumina may dissolve in the sodium hydroxide,leaving impurities less soluble at high pH such as iron oxides behind inthe form of a highly alkaline red mud. In some embodiments, the sodiumhydroxide may be used in soap making process. In some embodiments, thesodium hydroxide may be used in the manufacture of biodiesel where thesodium hydroxide may be used as a catalyst for the trans-esterificationof methanol and triglycerides. In some embodiments, the sodium hydroxidemay be used as a cleansing agent, such as, but not limited to, degreaseron stainless and glass bakeware.

In some embodiments, the sodium hydroxide may be used in foodpreparation. Food uses of sodium hydroxide include, but not limited to,washing or chemical peeling of fruits and vegetables, chocolate andcocoa processing, caramel coloring production, poultry scalding, softdrink processing, and thickening ice cream. Olives may be soaked insodium hydroxide to soften them, while pretzels and German lye rolls maybe glazed with a sodium hydroxide solution before baking to make themcrisp. In some embodiments, the sodium hydroxide may be used in homes asa drain cleaning agent for clearing clogged drains. In some embodiments,the sodium hydroxide may be used as a relaxer to straighten hair. Insome embodiments, the sodium hydroxide may be used in oil refineries andfor oil drilling, as it may increase the viscosity and prevent heavymaterials from settling. In the chemical industry, the sodium hydroxidemay provide functions of neutralisation of acids, hydrolysis,condensation, saponification, and replacement of other groups in organiccompounds of hydroxyl ions. In some embodiments, the sodium hydroxidemay be used in textile industry. Mercerizing of fiber with sodiumhydroxide solution may enable greater tensional strength and consistentlustre. It may also remove waxes and oils from fiber to make the fibermore receptive to bleaching and dying. Sodium hydroxide may also be usedin the production of viscose rayon. In some embodiments, the sodiumhydroxide may be used to make sodium hypochlorite which may be used as ahousehold bleach and disinfectant and to make sodium phenolate which maybe used in antiseptics and for the manufacture of Aspirin.

Contact of Carbon Dioxide with Cathode Electrolyte

In one aspect, there are provided methods and systems as describedherein, that include contacting carbon dioxide with the cathodeelectrolyte either inside the cathode chamber or outside the cathodechamber. In one aspect, there are provided methods including contactingan anode with a metal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anode chamber;converting or oxidizing the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to ahigher oxidation state in the anode chamber; contacting a cathode with acathode electrolyte in a cathode chamber; forming an alkali in thecathode electrolyte; and contacting the alkali in the cathodeelectrolyte with carbon from a source of carbon, such as carbon dioxidefrom a source of carbon dioxide. In some embodiments, the methodsfurther comprises using the metal in the higher oxidation state formedin the anode chamber as is (as described herein) or use it for reactionwith hydrogen gas or reaction with unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbons(as described herein). In some embodiments, there is provided a methodcomprising contacting an anode with an anode electrolyte; oxidizingmetal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state atthe anode; contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte; producinghydroxide ions in the cathode electrolyte; and contacting the cathodeelectrolyte with an industrial waste gas comprising carbon dioxide orwith a solution of carbon dioxide comprising bicarbonate ions.

In another aspect, there are provided systems including an anode chambercontaining an anode in contact with a metal ion in an anode electrolyte,wherein the anode is configured to convert the metal ion from a loweroxidation state to a higher oxidation state; a cathode chambercontaining a cathode in contact with a cathode electrolyte wherein thecathode is configured to produce an alkali; and a contactor operablyconnected to the cathode chamber and configured to contact carbon from asource of carbon such as carbon dioxide from a source of carbon dioxidewith the alkali in the cathode electrolyte. In some embodiments, thesystem further includes a reactor operably connected to the anodechamber and configured to react the metal ion in the higher oxidationstate with hydrogen gas or with unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbons(as described herein).

In some embodiments, the carbon from the source of carbon is treatedwith the cathode electrolyte to form a solution of dissolved carbondioxide in the alkali of the cathode electrolyte. The alkali present inthe cathode electrolyte may facilitate dissolution of carbon dioxide inthe solution. The solution with dissolved carbon dioxide includescarbonic acid, bicarbonate, carbonate, or any combination thereof. Insuch method and system, the carbon from the source of carbon includesgaseous carbon dioxide from an industrial process or a solution ofcarbon dioxide from a gas/liquid contactor which is in contact with thegaseous carbon dioxide from the industrial process. Such contactor isfurther defined herein. In some embodiments of the systems including thecontactor, the cathode chamber includes bicarbonate and carbonate ionsin addition to hydroxide ions.

An illustrative example of an electrochemical system integrated withcarbon from a source of carbon is as illustrated in FIG. 12. It is to beunderstood that the system 1200 of FIG. 12 is for illustration purposesonly and other metal ions with different oxidations states (e.g.,chromium, tin etc.); other electrochemical systems described herein suchas electrochemical systems of FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2, 3A, 3B, 4A, 5A, 5C, 6,8A, 8B, 9, and 11; and the third electrolyte other than sodium chloridesuch as sodium sulfate, are variations that are equally applicable tothis system. The electrochemical system 1200 of FIG. 12 includes ananode and a cathode separated by anion exchange membrane and cationexchange membrane creating a third chamber containing a thirdelectrolyte, NaCl. The metal ion is oxidized in the anode chamber fromthe lower oxidation state to the higher oxidation state which metal inthe higher oxidation state is then used for reactions in a reactor, suchas reaction with hydrogen gas or reaction with unsaturated or saturatedhydrocarbon. The products formed by such reactions are described herein.The cathode is illustrated as hydrogen gas forming cathode in FIG. 12although an ODC is equally applicable to this system. The cathodechamber is connected with a gas/liquid contactor that is in contact withgaseous carbon dioxide. The cathode electrolyte containing alkali suchas hydroxide and/or sodium carbonate is circulated to the gas/liquidcontactor which brings the cathode electrolyte in contact with thegaseous carbon dioxide resulting in the formation of sodiumbicarbonate/sodium carbonate solution. This solution of dissolved carbondioxide is then circulated to the cathode chamber where the alkaliformed at the cathode converts the bicarbonate ions to the carbonateions bringing the pH of the cathode electrolyte to less than 12. This inturn brings the voltage of the cell down to less than 2 V. The sodiumcarbonate solution thus formed may be re-circulated back to thegas/liquid contactor for further contact with gaseous carbon dioxide ormay be taken out for carrying out the calcium carbonate precipitationprocess as described herein. In some embodiments, the gaseous carbondioxide is administered directly into the cathode chamber without theintermediate use of the gas/liquid contactor. In some embodiments, thebicarbonate solution from the gas/liquid contactor is not administeredto the cathode chamber but is instead used for the precipitation of thebicarbonate product.

The methods and systems related to the contact of the carbon from thesource of carbon with the cathode electrolyte (when cathode is eitherODC or hydrogen gas producing cathode), as described herein andillustrated in FIG. 12, may result in voltage savings as compared tomethods and systems that do not contact the carbon from the source ofcarbon with the cathode electrolyte. The voltage savings in-turn mayresult in less electricity consumption and less carbon dioxide emissionfor electricity generation. This may result in the generation of greenerchemicals such as sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate,calcium/magnesium bicarbonate or carbonate, halogentated hydrocarbonsand/or acids, that are formed by the efficient and energy saving methodsand systems of the invention. In some embodiments, the electrochemicalcell, where carbon from the source of carbon (such as carbon dioxide gasor sodium carbonate/bicarbonate solution from the gas/liquid contactor)is contacted with the alkali generated by the cathode, has a theoreticalcathode half cell voltage saving or theoretical total cell voltagesavings of more than 0.1V, or more than 0.2V, or more than 0.5V, or morethan 1V, or more than 1.5V, or between 0.1-1.5V, or between 0.1-1V, orbetween 0.2-1.5V, or between 0.2-1V, or between 0.5-1.5V, or between0.5-1V as compared to the electrochemical cell where no carbon iscontacted with the alkali from the cathode such as, ODC or the hydrogengas producing cathode. In some embodiments, this voltage saving isachieved with a cathode electrolyte pH of between 7-13, or between 6-12,or between 7-12, or between 7-10, or between 6-13.

Based on the Nernst equation explained earlier, when metal in the loweroxidation state is oxidized to metal in the higher oxidation state atthe anode as follows:

Cu⁺→Cu²⁺+2e ⁻

E_(anode) based on concentration of copper II species is between0.159-0.75V.

When water is reduced to hydroxide ions and hydrogen gas at the cathode(as illustrated in FIG. 4A or FIG. 12) and the hydroxide ions come intocontact with the bicarbonate ions (such as carbon dioxide gas dissolveddirectly into the cathode electrolyte or sodium carbonate/bicarbonatesolution from the gas/liquid contactor circulated into the cathodeelectrolyte) to form carbonate, the pH of the cathode electrolyte goesdown from 14 to less than 14, as follows:

E_(cathode)=−0.059 pH_(c), where pH_(c) is the pH of the cathodeelectrolyte=10

E_(cathode)=−0.59

The E_(total) then is between 0.749 to 1.29, depending on theconcentration of copper ions in the anode electrolyte. TheE_(cathode)=−0.59 is a saving of more than 200 mV or between 200 mV to500 mV or between 100-500 mV over the E_(cathode)=−0.83 for the hydrogengas producing cathode that is not in contact with bicarbonate/carbonateions. The E_(Total)=0.749 to 1.29 is a saving of more than 200 mV orbetween 200 mV-1.2V or between 100 mV-1.5V over the E_(Total)=0.989 to1.53 for the hydrogen gas producing cathode that is not in contact withbicarbonate/carbonate ions.

Similarly, when water is reduced to hydroxide ions at ODC (asillustrated in FIG. 5A) and the hydroxide ions come into contact withthe bicarbonate ions (such as carbon dioxide gas dissolved directly intothe cathode electrolyte or sodium carbonate/bicarbonate solution fromthe gas/liquid contactor circulated into the cathode electrolyte) toform carbonate, the pH of the cathode electrolyte goes down from 14 toless than 14, as follows:

E_(cathode)=1.224−0.059 pH_(c), where pH_(c)=10

E_(cathode)=0.636V

E_(total) then is between −0.477 to 0.064V depending on theconcentration of copper ions in the anode electrolyte. TheE_(cathode)=0.636 is a saving of more than 100 mV or between 100 mV to200 mV or between 100-500 mV or between 200-500 mV over theE_(cathode)=0.4 for the ODC that is not in contact withbicarbonate/carbonate ions. The E_(Total)=−0.477 to 0.064V is a savingof more than 200 mV or between 200 mV-1.2V or between 100 mV-1.5V overthe E_(Total)=−0.241 to 0.3 for the ODC that is not in contact withbicarbonate/carbonate ions.

As described above, as the cathode electrolyte is allowed to increase toa pH of 14 or greater, the difference between the anode half-cellpotential and the cathode half cell potential would increase. Withincreased duration of cell operation without CO₂ addition or otherintervention, e.g., diluting with water, the required cell potentialwould continue to increase. The operation of the electrochemical cellwith the cathode pH between 7-13 or between 7-12 provides a significantenergy savings.

Thus, for different pH values in the cathode electrolyte, hydroxideions, carbonate ions and/or bicarbonate ions are produced in the cathodeelectrolyte when the voltage applied across the anode and cathode isless than 2.9, or less than 2.5, or less than 2.1, or 2.0, or less than1.5, or less than 1.0, or less than 0.5, or between 0.5-1.5V, while thepH in the cathode electrolyte is between 7-13 or 7-12 or 6-12 or 7-10.

In some embodiments, the source of carbon is any gaseous source ofcarbon dioxide and/or any source that provides dissolved form orsolution of carbon dioxide. The dissolved form of carbon dioxide orsolution of carbon dioxide includes carbonic acid, bicarbonate ions,carbonate ions, or combination thereof. In some embodiments, the oxygengas and/or carbon dioxide gas supplied to the cathode is from any oxygensource and carbon dioxide gas source known in the art. The source ofoxygen gas and the source of carbon dioxide gas may be same or may bedifferent. Some examples of the oxygen gas source and carbon dioxide gassource are as described herein.

In some embodiments, the alkali produced in the cathode chamber may betreated with a gaseous stream of carbon dioxide and/or a dissolved formof carbon dioxide to form carbonate/bicarbonate products which may beused as is for commercial purposes or may be treated with divalentcations, such as, but not limited to, alkaline earth metal ions to formalkaline earth metal carbonates and/or bicarbonates.

As used herein, “carbon from source of carbon” includes gaseous form ofcarbon dioxide or dissolved form or solution of carbon dioxide. Thecarbon from source of carbon includes CO₂, carbonic acid, bicarbonateions, carbonate ions, or a combination thereof. As used herein, “sourceof carbon” includes any source that provides gaseous and/or dissolvedform of carbon dioxide. The sources of carbon include, but not limitedto, waste streams or industrial processes that provide a gaseous streamof CO₂; a gas/liquid contactor that provides a solution containing CO₂,carbonic acid, bicarbonate ions, carbonate ions, or combination thereof;and/or bicarbonate brine solution.

The gaseous CO₂ is, in some embodiments, a waste stream or product froman industrial plant. The nature of the industrial plant may vary inthese embodiments. The industrial plants include, but not limited to,refineries that form unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbons, power plants(e.g., as described in detail in International Application No.PCT/US08/88318, titled, “Methods of sequestering CO₂,” filed 24 Dec.2008, the disclosure of which is herein incorporated by reference in itsentirety), chemical processing plants, steel mills, paper mills, cementplants (e.g., as described in further detail in U.S. ProvisionalApplication Ser. No. 61/088,340, the disclosure of which is hereinincorporated by reference in its entirety), and other industrial plantsthat produce CO₂ as a byproduct. By waste stream is meant a stream ofgas (or analogous stream) that is produced as a byproduct of an activeprocess of the industrial plant. The gaseous stream may be substantiallypure CO₂ or a multi-component gaseous stream that includes CO₂ and oneor more additional gases. Multi-component gaseous streams (containingCO₂) that may be employed as a CO₂ source in embodiments of the methodsinclude both reducing, e.g., syngas, shifted syngas, natural gas, andhydrogen and the like, and oxidizing condition streams, e.g., flue gasesfrom combustion, such as combustion of methane. Exhaust gases containingNOx, SOx, VOCs, particulates and Hg would incorporate these compoundsalong with the carbonate in the precipitated product. Particularmulti-component gaseous streams of interest that may be treatedaccording to the subject invention include, but not limited to, oxygencontaining combustion power plant flue gas, turbo charged boiler productgas, coal gasification product gas, shifted coal gasification productgas, anaerobic digester product gas, wellhead natural gas stream,reformed natural gas or methane hydrates, and the like. In instanceswhere the gas contains both carbon dioxide and oxygen gas, the gas maybe used both as a source of carbon dioxide as well as a source ofoxygen. For example, flue gases obtained from the combustion of oxygenand methane may contain oxygen gas and may provide a source of bothcarbon dioxide gas as well as oxygen gas.

Thus, the waste streams may be produced from a variety of differenttypes of industrial plants. Suitable waste streams for the inventioninclude waste streams, such as, flue gas, produced by industrial plantsthat combust fossil fuels (e.g., coal, oil, natural gas) oranthropogenic fuel products of naturally occurring organic fuel deposits(e.g., tar sands, heavy oil, oil shale, etc.). In some embodiments, awaste stream suitable for systems and methods of the invention issourced from a coal-fired power plant, such as a pulverized coal powerplant, a supercritical coal power plant, a mass burn coal power plant, afluidized bed coal power plant. In some embodiments, the waste stream issourced from gas or oil-fired boiler and steam turbine power plants, gasor oil-fired boiler simple cycle gas turbine power plants, or gas oroil-fired boiler combined cycle gas turbine power plants. In someembodiments, waste streams produced by power plants that combust syngas(i.e., gas that is produced by the gasification of organic matter, forexample, coal, biomass, etc.) are used. In some embodiments, wastestreams from integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plants areused. In some embodiments, waste streams produced by Heat Recovery SteamGenerator (HRSG) plants are used to produce compositions in accordancewith systems and methods provided herein.

Waste streams produced by cement plants are also suitable for systemsand methods provided herein. Cement plant waste streams include wastestreams from both wet process and dry process plants, which plants mayemploy shaft kilns or rotary kilns, and may include pre-calciners. Theseindustrial plants may each burn a single fuel, or may burn two or morefuels sequentially or simultaneously.

Although carbon dioxide may be present in ordinary ambient air, in viewof its very low concentration, ambient carbon dioxide may not providesufficient carbon dioxide to achieve the formation of the bicarbonateand/or carbonate as is obtained when carbon from the source of carbon iscontacted with the cathode electrolyte. In some embodiments of thesystem and method, the pressure inside the electrochemical system may begreater than the ambient atmospheric pressure in the ambient air andhence ambient carbon dioxide may typically be prevented frominfiltrating into the cathode electrolyte.

The contact system or the contactor includes any means for contactingthe carbon from the source of carbon to the cathode electrolyte inside acathode chamber or outside the cathode chamber. Such means forcontacting the carbon to the cathode electrolyte or the contactorconfigured to contact carbon from a source of carbon with the cathodechamber, are well known in the art and include, but not limited to,injection, pipe, duct, conduit, and the like. In some embodiments, thesystem includes a duct that directs the carbon to the cathodeelectrolyte inside a cathode chamber. It is to be understood that whenthe carbon from the source of carbon is contacted with the cathodeelectrolyte inside the cathode chamber, the carbon may be injected tothe cathode electrolyte from the bottom of the cell, top of the cell,from the side inlet in the cell, and/or from all entry ports dependingon the amount of carbon desired in the cathode chamber. The amount ofcarbon from the source of carbon inside the cathode chamber may bedependent on the flow rate of the solution, desired pH of the cathodeelectrolyte, and/or size of the cell. Such optimization of the amount ofthe carbon from the source of carbon is well within the scope of theinvention. In some embodiments, the carbon from the source of carbon isselected from gaseous carbon dioxide from an industrial process or asolution of carbon dioxide from a gas/liquid contactor in contact withthe gaseous carbon dioxide from the industrial process.

In some embodiments, the cathode chamber includes a partition that helpsfacilitate delivery of the carbon dioxide gas and/or solution of carbondioxide in the cathode chamber. In some embodiments, the partition mayhelp prevent mixing of the carbon dioxide gas with the oxygen gas and/ormixing of the carbon dioxide gas in the cathode chamber with thehydrogen gas in the anode chamber. In some embodiments, the partitionresults in the catholyte with a gaseous form of carbon dioxide as wellas dissolved form of carbon dioxide. In some embodiments, the systemsprovided herein include a partition that partitions the cathodeelectrolyte into a first cathode electrolyte portion and a secondcathode electrolyte portion, where the second cathode electrolyteportion that includes dissolved carbon dioxide contacts the cathode; andwhere the first cathode electrolyte portion that includes dissolvedcarbon dioxide and gaseous carbon dioxide, contacts the second cathodeelectrolyte portion under the partition. In the system, the partition ispositioned in the cathode electrolyte such that a gas, e.g., carbondioxide in the first cathode electrolyte portion is isolated fromcathode electrolyte in the second cathode electrolyte portion. Thus, thepartition may serve as a means to prevent mixing of the gases on thecathode and/or the gases and or vapor from the anode. Such partition isdescribed in U.S. Publication No. 2010/0084280, filed Nov. 12, 2009,which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety in the presentdisclosure.

In some embodiments, the source of carbon is a gas/liquid contactor thatprovides a dissolved form or solution of carbon dioxide containing CO₂,carbonic acid, bicarbonate ions, carbonate ions, or combination thereof.In some embodiments, the solution charged with the partially or fullydissolved CO₂ is made by sparging or diffusing the CO₂ gaseous streamthrough slurry or solution to make a CO₂ charged water. In someembodiments, the slurry or solution charged with CO₂ includes a protonremoving agent obtained from the cathode electrolyte of anelectrochemical cell, as described herein. In some embodiments, thegas/liquid contactor may include a bubble chamber where the CO₂ gas isbubbled through the slurry or the solution containing the protonremoving agent. In some embodiments, the contactor may include a spraytower where the slurry or the solution containing the proton removingagent is sprayed or circulated through the CO₂ gas. In some embodiments,the contactor may include a pack bed to increase the surface area ofcontact between the CO₂ gas and the solution containing the protonremoving agent. For example, the gas/liquid contactor or the absorbermay contain a slurry or solution or pack bed of sodium carbonate. TheCO₂ is sparged through this slurry or the solution or the pack bed wherethe alkaline medium facilitates dissolution of CO₂ in the solution.After the dissolution of CO₂, the solution may contain bicarbonate,carbonate, or combination thereof. In some embodiments, a typicalabsorber or the contactor fluid temperature is 32-37° C. The absorber orcontactor for absorbing CO₂ in the solution is described in U.S.application Ser. No. 12/721,549, filed on Mar. 10, 2010, which isincorporated herein by reference in its entirety in the presentdisclosure. The solution containing the carbonate/bicarbonate speciesmay be withdrawn from the gas/liquid contactor to formbicarbonate/carbonate products. In some embodiments, thecarbonate/bicarbonate solution may be transferred to the cathodeelectrolyte containing the alkali. The alkali may substantially or fullyconvert the bicarbonate to carbonate to form carbonate solution. Thecarbonate solution may be re-circulated back to the gas/liquid contactoror may be withdrawn from the cathode chamber and treated with divalentcations to form bicarbonate/carbonate products.

In some embodiments, the alkali produced in the cathode electrolyte maybe delivered to the gas/liquid contactor where the carbon dioxide gascomes into contact with the alkali. The carbon dioxide gas after cominginto contact with the alkali may result in the formation of carbonicacid, bicarbonate ions, carbonate ions, or combination thereof. Thedissolved form of carbon dioxide may be then delivered back to thecathode chamber where the alkali may convert the bicarbonate into thecarbonate. The carbonate/bicarbonate mix may be then used as is forcommercial purposes or is treated with divalent cations, such as,alkaline earth metal ions to form alkaline earth metalcarbonates/bicarbonates.

The system in some embodiments includes a cathode electrolytecirculating system adapted for withdrawing and circulating cathodeelectrolyte in the system. In some embodiments, the cathode electrolytecirculating system includes a gas/liquid contactor outside the cathodechamber that is adapted for contacting the carbon from the source ofcarbon with the circulating cathode electrolyte, and for re-circulatingthe electrolyte in the system. As the pH of the cathode electrolyte maybe adjusted by withdrawing and/or circulating cathode electrolyte/carbonfrom the source of carbon from the system, the pH of the cathodeelectrolyte compartment can be regulated by regulating an amount ofcathode electrolyte removed from the system, passed through thegas/liquid contactor, and/or re-circulated back into the cathodechamber.

In some embodiments, the source of carbon is the bicarbonate brinesolution. The bicarbonate brine solution, is as described in U.S.Provisional Application No. 61/433,641, filed on Jan. 18, 2011 and U.S.Provisional Application No. 61/408,325, filed Oct. 29, 2010, which areboth incorporated herein by reference in their entirety in the presentdisclosure. As used herein, the “bicarbonate brine solution” includesany brine containing bicarbonate ions. In some embodiments, the brine isa synthetic brine such as a solution of brine containing thebicarbonate, e.g., sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, lithiumbicarbonate etc. In some embodiments, the brine is a naturally occurringbicarbonate brine, e.g., subterranean brine such as naturally occurringlakes. In some embodiments, the bicarbonate brine is made fromsubterranean brines, such as but not limited to, carbonate brines,alkaline brines, hard brines, and/or alkaline hard brines. In someembodiments, the bicarbonate brine is made from minerals where theminerals are crushed and dissolved in brine and optionally furtherprocessed. The minerals can be found under the surface, on the surface,or subsurface of the lakes. The bicarbonate brine can also be made fromevaporate. The bicarbonate brine may include other oxyanions of carbonin addition to bicarbonate (HCO₃ ⁻), such as, but not limited to,carbonic acid (H₂CO₃) and/or carbonate (CO₃ ²⁻).

In some embodiments of the electrochemical cells described herein, thesystem is configured to produce carbonate ions by a reaction of thecarbon such as, CO₂, carbonic acid, bicarbonate ions, carbonate ions, orcombination thereof, from the source of carbon with an alkali, such as,sodium hydroxide from the cathode electrolyte. In some embodiments (notshown in figures), the carbon from the source of carbon, such as gaseousform of carbon dioxide may be contacted with the catholyte inside thecathode chamber and the catholyte containinghydroxide/carbonate/bicarbonate may be withdrawn from the cathodechamber and contacted with the gas/liquid contactor outside the cathodechamber. In such embodiments, the catholyte from the gas/liquidcontactor may be contacted back again with the catholyte inside thecathode chamber.

For the systems where the carbon from the source of carbon is contactedwith the cathode electrolyte outside the cathode chamber, the alkalicontaining cathode electrolyte may be withdrawn from the cathode chamberand may be added to a container configured to contain the carbon fromthe source of carbon. The container may have an input for the source ofcarbon such as a pipe or conduit, etc. or a pipeline in communicationwith the gaseous stream of CO₂, a solution containing dissolved form ofCO₂, and/or the bicarbonate brine. The container may also be in fluidcommunication with a reactor where the source of carbon, such as, e.g.bicarbonate brine solution may be produced, modified, and/or stored.

For the systems where the carbon from the source of carbon is contactedwith the cathode electrolyte inside the cathode chamber, the cathodeelectrolyte containing alkali, bicarbonate, and/or carbonate may bewithdrawn from the cathode chamber and may be contacted with alkalineearth metal ions, as described herein, to form bicarbonate/carbonateproducts.

Components of Electrochemical Cell

The methods and systems provided herein include one or more of thefollowing components.

In some embodiments, the anode may contain a corrosion stable,electrically conductive base support. Such as, but not limited to,amorphous carbon, such as carbon black, fluorinated carbons like thespecifically fluorinated carbons described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,908,198and available under the trademark SFC™ carbons. Other examples ofelectrically conductive base materials include, but not limited to,sub-stoichiometric titanium oxides, such as, Magneli phasesub-stoichiometric titanium oxides having the formula TiO_(x) wherein xranges from about 1.67 to about 1.9. For example, titanium oxide Ti₄O₇.In some embodiments, carbon based materials provide a mechanical supportfor the GDE or as blending materials to enhance electrical conductivitybut may not be used as catalyst support to prevent corrosion.

In some embodiments, the gas-diffusion electrodes or general electrodesdescribed herein contain an electrocatalyst for aiding inelectrochemical dissociation, e.g. reduction of oxygen at the cathode orthe oxidation of the metal ion at the anode. Examples ofelectrocatalysts include, but not limited to, highly dispersed metals oralloys of the platinum group metals, such as platinum, palladium,ruthenium, rhodium, iridium, or their combinations such asplatinum-rhodium, platinum-ruthenium, titanium mesh coated with PtIrmixed metal oxide or titanium coated with galvanized platinum;electrocatalytic metal oxides, such as, but not limited to, IrO₂; gold,tantalum, carbon, graphite, organometallic macrocyclic compounds, andother electrocatalysts well known in the art for electrochemicalreduction of oxygen or oxidation of metal.

In some embodiments, the electrodes described herein, relate to poroushomogeneous composite structures as well as heterogeneous, layered typecomposite structures wherein each layer may have a distinct physical andcompositional make-up, e.g. porosity and electroconductive base toprevent flooding, and loss of the three phase interface, and resultingelectrode performance.

In some embodiments, the electrodes provided herein may include anodesand cathodes having porous polymeric layers on or adjacent to theanolyte or catholyte solution side of the electrode which may assist indecreasing penetration and electrode fouling. Stable polymeric resins orfilms may be included in a composite electrode layer adjacent to theanolyte comprising resins formed from non-ionic polymers, such aspolystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, polysulfone, etc., or ionic-typecharged polymers like those formed from polystyrenesulfonic acid,sulfonated copolymers of styrene and vinylbenzene, carboxylated polymerderivatives, sulfonated or carboxylated polymers having partially ortotally fluorinated hydrocarbon chains and aminated polymers likepolyvinylpyridine. Stable microporous polymer films may also be includedon the dry side to inhibit electrolyte penetration. In some embodiments,the gas-diffusion cathodes includes such cathodes known in the art thatare coated with high surface area coatings of precious metals such asgold and/or silver, precious metal alloys, nickel, and the like.

In some embodiments, the methods and systems provided herein includeanode that allows increased diffusion of the electrolyte in and aroundthe anode. Applicants found that the shape and/or geometry of the anodemay have an effect on the flow or the velocity of the anode electrolytearound the anode in the anode chamber which in turn may improve the masstransfer and reduce the voltage of the cell. In some embodiments, themethods and systems provided herein include anode that is a “diffusionenhancing” anode. The “diffusion enhancing” anode as used hereinincludes anode that enhances the diffusion of the electrolyte in and/oraround the anode thereby enhancing the reaction at the anode. In someembodiments, the diffusion enhancing anode is a porous anode. The“porous anode” as used herein includes an anode that has pores in it.Applicants unexpectedly and surprisingly found that the diffusionenhancing anode such as, but not limited to, the porous anode used inthe methods and systems provided herein, has several advantages over thenon-diffusing or non-porous anode in the electrochemical systemsincluding, but not limited to, higher surface area; increase in activesites; decrease in voltage; decrease or elimination of resistance by theanode electrolyte; increase in current density; increase in turbulencein the anode electrolyte; and/or improved mass transfer.

The diffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to, the porousanode may be flat or unflat. For example, in some embodiments, thediffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to, the porous anodeis in a flat form including, but not limited to, an expanded flattenedform, a perforated plate, a reticulated structure, etc. In someembodiments, the diffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to,the porous anode includes an expanded mesh or is a flat expanded meshanode.

In some embodiments, the diffusion enhancing anode such as, but notlimited to, the porous anode is unflat or has a corrugated geometry. Insome embodiments, the corrugated geometry of the anode may provide anadditional advantage of the turbulence to the anode electrolyte andimprove the mass transfer at the anode. The “corrugation” or “corrugatedgeometry” or “corrugated anode” as used herein includes an anode that isnot flat or is unflat. The corrugated geometry of the anode includes,but not limited to, unflattened, expanded unflattened, staircase,undulations, wave like, 3-D, crimp, groove, pleat, pucker, ridge, niche,ruffle, wrinkle, woven mesh, punched tab style, etc.

Few examples of the flat and the corrugated geometry of the diffusionenhancing anode such as, but not limited to, the porous anode are asillustrated in FIG. 16. These examples are for illustration purposesonly and any other variation from these geometries is well within thescope of the invention. The figure A in FIG. 16 is an example of a flatexpanded anode and the figure B in FIG. 16 is an example of thecorrugated anode.

In some embodiments, there is provided a method, comprising contacting adiffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to, a porous anodewith an anode electrolyte wherein the anode electrolyte comprises metalion; oxidizing the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the diffusion enhancing anode such as, but notlimited to, the porous anode; contacting a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte, and producing a hydroxide at the cathode.

In some embodiments, there is provided a method, comprising contacting adiffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to, a porous anodewith an anode electrolyte wherein the anode electrolyte comprises metalion; oxidizing the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the diffusion enhancing anode such as, but notlimited to, the porous anode; contacting a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte; and reacting an unsaturated hydrocarbon or a saturatedhydrocarbon with the anode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in thehigher oxidation state to produce a halogenated hydrocarbon.

In some embodiments, there is provided a method, comprising contacting adiffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to, a porous anodewith an anode electrolyte wherein the anode electrolyte comprises metalion; oxidizing the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the diffusion enhancing anode such as, but notlimited to, the porous anode; contacting a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte; and reacting an unsaturated hydrocarbon or a saturatedhydrocarbon with the anode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in thehigher oxidation state, in an aqueous medium wherein the aqueous mediumcomprises more than 5 wt % water to produce a halogenated hydrocarbon.

In some embodiments of the foregoing methods, the unsaturatedhydrocarbon (such as formula I), the saturated hydrocarbon (such asformula III), the halogenated hydrocarbon (such as formula II and IV),the metal ions, etc. have all been described in detail herein.

In some embodiments of the foregoing methods, the aqueous mediumcomprises more than 5 wt % water or more than 5.5 wt % or more than 6 wt% or between 5-90 wt % or between 5-95 wt % or between 5-99 wt % wateror between 5.5-90 wt % or between 5.5-95 wt % or between 5.5-99 wt %water or between 6-90 wt % or between 6-95 wt % or between 6-99 wt %water.

In some embodiments of the above described methods, the cathode produceswater, alkali, and/or hydrogen gas. In some embodiments of the abovedescribed methods, the cathode is an ODC producing water. In someembodiments of the above described methods, the cathode is an ODCproducing alkali. In some embodiments of the above described methods,the cathode produces hydrogen gas. In some embodiments of the abovedescribed methods, the cathode is an oxygen depolarizing cathode thatreduces oxygen and water to hydroxide ions; the cathode is a hydrogengas producing cathode that reduces water to hydrogen gas and hydroxideions; the cathode is a hydrogen gas producing cathode that reduceshydrochloric acid to hydrogen gas; or the cathode is an oxygendepolarizing cathode that reacts hydrochloric acid and oxygen gas toform water.

In some embodiments of the above described methods, the metal ion is anymetal ion described herein. In some embodiments of the above describedmethods, the metal ion is selected from the group consisting of iron,chromium, copper, tin, silver, cobalt, uranium, lead, mercury, vanadium,bismuth, titanium, ruthenium, osmium, europium, zinc, cadmium, gold,nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium, iridium, manganese, technetium,rhenium, molybdenum, tungsten, niobium, tantalum, zirconium, hafnium,and combination thereof. In some embodiments, the metal ion is selectedfrom the group consisting of iron, chromium, copper, and tin. In someembodiments, the metal ion is copper. In some embodiments, the loweroxidation state of the metal ion is 1+, 2+, 3+, 4+, or 5+. In someembodiments, the higher oxidation state of the metal ion is 2+, 3+, 4+,5+, or 6+.

In some embodiments, there is provided a method, comprising contacting adiffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to, a porous anodewith an anode electrolyte wherein the anode electrolyte comprises copperion; oxidizing the copper ion from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the diffusion enhancing anode such as, but notlimited to, the porous anode; contacting a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte, and producing a hydroxide at the cathode.

In some embodiments, there is provided a method, comprising contacting adiffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to, a porous anodewith an anode electrolyte wherein the anode electrolyte comprises copperion; oxidizing the copper ion from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the diffusion enhancing anode such as, but notlimited to, the porous anode; contacting a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte; and reacting an unsaturated hydrocarbon or a saturatedhydrocarbon with the anode electrolyte comprising the copper ion in thehigher oxidation state to produce a halogenated hydrocarbon.

In some embodiments, there is provided a method, comprising contacting adiffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to, a porous anodewith an anode electrolyte wherein the anode electrolyte comprises copperion; oxidizing the copper ion from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the diffusion enhancing anode such as, but notlimited to, the porous anode; contacting a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte; and reacting an unsaturated hydrocarbon or a saturatedhydrocarbon with the anode electrolyte comprising the copper ion in thehigher oxidation state, in an aqueous medium wherein the aqueous mediumcomprises more than 5 wt % water to produce a halogenated hydrocarbon.

In some embodiments, there is provided a method, comprising contacting adiffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to, a porous anodewith an anode electrolyte wherein the anode electrolyte comprises copperion; oxidizing the copper ion from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the diffusion enhancing anode such as, but notlimited to, the porous anode; contacting a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte; and reacting ethylene with the anode electrolyte comprisingthe copper ion in the higher oxidation state to produce ethylenedichloride.

In some embodiments, there is provided a method, comprising contacting adiffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to, a porous anodewith an anode electrolyte wherein the anode electrolyte comprises copperion; oxidizing the copper ion from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the diffusion enhancing anode such as, but notlimited to, the porous anode; contacting a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte; and reacting ethylene with the anode electrolyte comprisingthe copper ion in the higher oxidation state, in an aqueous mediumwherein the aqueous medium comprises more than 5 wt % water to produceethylene dichloride.

In some embodiments of the foregoing methods and embodiments, the use ofthe diffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to, the porousanode results in the voltage savings of between 10-500 mV, or between50-250 mV, or between 100-200 mV, or between 200-400 mV, or between25-450 mV, or between 250-350 mV, or between 100-500 mV, as compared tothe non-diffusing or the non-porous anode.

In some embodiments of the foregoing methods and embodiments, the use ofthe corrugated anode results in the voltage savings of between 10-500mV, or between 50-250 mV, or between 100-200 mV, or between 200-400 mV,or between 25-450 mV, or between 250-350 mV, or between 100-500 mV, ascompared to the flat porous anode.

The diffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to, the porousanode may be characterized by various parameters including, but notlimited to, mesh number which is a number of lines of mesh per inch;pore size; thickness of the wire or wire diameter; percentage open area;amplitude of the corrugation; repetition period of the corrugation, etc.These characteristics of the diffusion enhancing anode such as, but notlimited to, the porous anode may affect the properties of the porousanode, such as, but not limited to, increase in the surface area for theanode reaction; reduction of solution resistance; reduction of voltageapplied across the anode and the cathode; enhancement of the electrolyteturbulence across the anode; and/or improved mass transfer at the anode.

In some embodiments of the foregoing methods and embodiments, thediffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to, the porous anodemay have a pore opening size (as illustrated in FIG. 16) ranging between2×1 mm to 20×10 mm; or between 2×1 mm to 10×5 mm; or between 2×1 mm to5×5 mm; or between 1×1 mm to 20×10 mm; or between 1×1 mm to 10×5 mm; orbetween 1×1 mm to 5×5 mm; or between 5×1 mm to 10×5 mm; or between 5×1mm to 20×10 mm; between 10×5 mm to 20×10 mm and the like. It is to beunderstood that the pore size of the porous anode may also be dependenton the geometry of the pore. For example, the geometry of the pore maybe diamond shaped or square shaped. For the diamond shaped geometry, thepore size may be, e.g., 3×10 mm with 3 mm being widthwise and 10 mmbeing lengthwise of the diamond, or vice versa. For the square shapedgeometry, the pore size would be, e.g., 3 mm each side. The woven meshmay be the mesh with square shaped pores and the expanded mesh may bethe mesh with diamond shaped pores.

In some embodiments of the foregoing methods and embodiments, thediffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to, the porous anodemay have a pore wire thickness or mesh thickness (as illustrated in FIG.16) ranging between 0.5 mm to 5 mm; or between 0.5 mm to 4 mm; orbetween 0.5 mm to 3 mm; or between 0.5 mm to 2 mm; or between 0.5 mm to1 mm; or between 1 mm to 5 mm; or between 1 mm to 4 mm; or between 1 mmto 3 mm; or between 1 mm to 2 mm; or between 2 mm to 5 mm; or between 2mm to 4 mm; or between 2 mm to 3 mm; or between 0.5 mm to 2.5 mm; orbetween 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm; or between 1 mm to 1.5 mm; or between 1 mm to2.5 mm; or between 2.5 mm to 3 mm; or 0.5 mm; or 1 mm; or 2 mm; or 3 mm.

In some embodiments of the foregoing methods and embodiments, when thediffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to, the porous anodeis the corrugated anode, then the corrugated anode may have acorrugation amplitude (as illustrated in FIG. 16) ranging between 1 mmto 8 mm; or between 1 mm to 7 mm; or between 1 mm to 6 mm; or between 1mm to 5 mm; or between 1 mm to 4 mm; or between 1 mm to 4.5 mm; orbetween 1 mm to 3 mm; or between 1 mm to 2 mm; or between 2 mm to 8 mm;or between 2 mm to 6 mm; or between 2 mm to 4 mm; or between 2 mm to 3mm; or between 3 mm to 8 mm; or between 3 mm to 7 mm; or between 3 mm to5 mm; or between 3 mm to 4 mm; or between 4 mm to 8 mm; or between 4 mmto 5 mm; or between 5 mm to 7 mm; or between 5 mm to 8 mm.

In some embodiments of the foregoing methods and embodiments, when thediffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to, the porous anodeis the corrugated anode, then the corrugated anode may have acorrugation period (not illustrated in figures) ranging between 2 mm to35 mm; or between 2 mm to 32 mm; or between 2 mm to 30 mm; or between 2mm to 25 mm; or between 2 mm to 20 mm; or between 2 mm to 16 mm; orbetween 2 mm to 10 mm; or between 5 mm to 35 mm; or between 5 mm to 30mm; or between 5 mm to 25 mm; or between 5 mm to 20 mm; or between 5 mmto 16 mm; or between 5 mm to 10 mm; or between 15 mm to 35 mm; orbetween 15 mm to 30 mm; or between 15 mm to 25 mm; or between 15 mm to20 mm; or between 20 mm to 35 mm; or between 25 mm to 30 mm; or between25 mm to 35 mm; or between 25 mm to 30 mm.

In some embodiments, there is provided a method, comprising contacting adiffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to, a porous anodewith an anode electrolyte wherein the anode electrolyte comprises metalion; oxidizing the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the diffusion enhancing anode such as, but notlimited to, the porous anode; contacting a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte, and producing a hydroxide at the cathode wherein the anodecomprises one or more of the following:

pore opening size ranging between 2×1 mm to 20×10 mm; or between 2×1 mmto 10×5 mm; or between 2×1 mm to 5×5 mm; or between 1×1 mm to 20×10 mm;or between 1×1 mm to 10×5 mm; or between 1×1 mm to 5×5 mm; or between5×1 mm to 10×5 mm; or between 5×1 mm to 20×10 mm; or between 10×5 mm to20×10 mm;

pore wire thickness or mesh thickness ranging between 0.5 mm to 5 mm; orbetween 0.5 mm to 4 mm; or between 0.5 mm to 3 mm; or between 0.5 mm to2 mm; or between 0.5 mm to 1 mm; or between 1 mm to 5 mm; or between 1mm to 4 mm; or between 1 mm to 3 mm; or between 1 mm to 2 mm; or between2 mm to 5 mm; or between 2 mm to 4 mm; or between 2 mm to 3 mm; orbetween 0.5 mm to 2.5 mm; or between 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm; or between 1 mmto 1.5 mm; or between 1 mm to 2.5 mm; or between 2.5 mm to 3 mm; or 0.5mm; or 1 mm; or 2 mm; or 3 mm;

corrugation amplitude ranging between 1 mm to 8 mm; or between 1 mm to 7mm; or between 1 mm to 6 mm; or between 1 mm to 5 mm; or between 1 mm to4 mm; or between 1 mm to 4.5 mm; or between 1 mm to 3 mm; or between 1mm to 2 mm; or between 2 mm to 8 mm; or between 2 mm to 6 mm; or between2 mm to 4 mm; or between 2 mm to 3 mm; or between 3 mm to 8 mm; orbetween 3 mm to 7 mm; or between 3 mm to 5 mm; or between 3 mm to 4 mm;or between 4 mm to 8 mm; or between 4 mm to 5 mm; or between 5 mm to 7mm; or between 5 mm to 8 mm; and

corrugation period ranging between 2 mm to 35 mm; or between 2 mm to 32mm; or between 2 mm to 30 mm; or between 2 mm to 25 mm; or between 2 mmto 20 mm; or between 2 mm to 16 mm; or between 2 mm to 10 mm; or between5 mm to 35 mm; or between 5 mm to 30 mm; or between 5 mm to 25 mm; orbetween 5 mm to 20 mm; or between 5 mm to 16 mm; or between 5 mm to 10mm; or between 15 mm to 35 mm; or between 15 mm to 30 mm; or between 15mm to 25 mm; or between 15 mm to 20 mm; or between 20 mm to 35 mm; orbetween 25 mm to 30 mm; or between 25 mm to 35 mm; or between 25 mm to30 mm.

In some embodiments, there is provided a method, comprising contacting adiffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to, a porous anodewith an anode electrolyte wherein the anode electrolyte comprises metalion; oxidizing the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the diffusion enhancing anode such as, but notlimited to, the porous anode; contacting a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte; and reacting an unsaturated hydrocarbon or a saturatedhydrocarbon with the anode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in thehigher oxidation state to produce a halogenated hydrocarbon wherein theanode comprises one or more of the following:

pore opening size ranging between 2×1 mm to 20×10 mm; or between 2×1 mmto 10×5 mm; or between 2×1 mm to 5×5 mm; or between 1×1 mm to 20×10 mm;or between 1×1 mm to 10×5 mm; or between 1×1 mm to 5×5 mm; or between5×1 mm to 10×5 mm; or between 5×1 mm to 20×10 mm; or between 10×5 mm to20×10 mm;

pore wire thickness or mesh thickness ranging between 0.5 mm to 5 mm; orbetween 0.5 mm to 4 mm; or between 0.5 mm to 3 mm; or between 0.5 mm to2 mm; or between 0.5 mm to 1 mm; or between 1 mm to 5 mm; or between 1mm to 4 mm; or between 1 mm to 3 mm; or between 1 mm to 2 mm; or between2 mm to 5 mm; or between 2 mm to 4 mm; or between 2 mm to 3 mm; orbetween 0.5 mm to 2.5 mm; or between 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm; or between 1 mmto 1.5 mm; or between 1 mm to 2.5 mm; or between 2.5 mm to 3 mm; or 0.5mm; or 1 mm; or 2 mm; or 3 mm;

corrugation amplitude ranging between 1 mm to 8 mm; or between 1 mm to 7mm; or between 1 mm to 6 mm; or between 1 mm to 5 mm; or between 1 mm to4 mm; or between 1 mm to 4.5 mm; or between 1 mm to 3 mm; or between 1mm to 2 mm; or between 2 mm to 8 mm; or between 2 mm to 6 mm; or between2 mm to 4 mm; or between 2 mm to 3 mm; or between 3 mm to 8 mm; orbetween 3 mm to 7 mm; or between 3 mm to 5 mm; or between 3 mm to 4 mm;or between 4 mm to 8 mm; or between 4 mm to 5 mm; or between 5 mm to 7mm; or between 5 mm to 8 mm; and

corrugation period ranging between 2 mm to 35 mm; or between 2 mm to 32mm; or between 2 mm to 30 mm; or between 2 mm to 25 mm; or between 2 mmto 20 mm; or between 2 mm to 16 mm; or between 2 mm to 10 mm; or between5 mm to 35 mm; or between 5 mm to 30 mm; or between 5 mm to 25 mm; orbetween 5 mm to 20 mm; or between 5 mm to 16 mm; or between 5 mm to 10mm; or between 15 mm to 35 mm; or between 15 mm to 30 mm; or between 15mm to 25 mm; or between 15 mm to 20 mm; or between 20 mm to 35 mm; orbetween 25 mm to 30 mm; or between 25 mm to 35 mm; or between 25 mm to30 mm.

In some embodiments, there is provided a method, comprising contacting adiffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limited to, a porous anodewith an anode electrolyte wherein the anode electrolyte comprises metalion; oxidizing the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higheroxidation state at the diffusion enhancing anode such as, but notlimited to, the porous anode; contacting a cathode with a cathodeelectrolyte; and reacting an unsaturated hydrocarbon or a saturatedhydrocarbon with the anode electrolyte comprising the metal ion in thehigher oxidation state, in an aqueous medium wherein the aqueous mediumcomprises more than 5 wt % water to produce a halogenated hydrocarbonwherein the anode comprises one or more of the following:

pore opening size ranging between 2×1 mm to 20×10 mm; or between 2×1 mmto 10×5 mm; or between 2×1 mm to 5×5 mm; or between 1×1 mm to 20×10 mm;or between 1×1 mm to 10×5 mm; or between 1×1 mm to 5×5 mm; or between5×1 mm to 10×5 mm; or between 5×1 mm to 20×10 mm; or between 10×5 mm to20×10 mm;

pore wire thickness or mesh thickness ranging between 0.5 mm to 5 mm; orbetween 0.5 mm to 4 mm; or between 0.5 mm to 3 mm; or between 0.5 mm to2 mm; or between 0.5 mm to 1 mm; or between 1 mm to 5 mm; or between 1mm to 4 mm; or between 1 mm to 3 mm; or between 1 mm to 2 mm; or between2 mm to 5 mm; or between 2 mm to 4 mm; or between 2 mm to 3 mm; orbetween 0.5 mm to 2.5 mm; or between 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm; or between 1 mmto 1.5 mm; or between 1 mm to 2.5 mm; or between 2.5 mm to 3 mm; or 0.5mm; or 1 mm; or 2 mm; or 3 mm;

corrugation amplitude ranging between 1 mm to 8 mm; or between 1 mm to 7mm; or between 1 mm to 6 mm; or between 1 mm to 5 mm; or between 1 mm to4 mm; or between 1 mm to 4.5 mm; or between 1 mm to 3 mm; or between 1mm to 2 mm; or between 2 mm to 8 mm; or between 2 mm to 6 mm; or between2 mm to 4 mm; or between 2 mm to 3 mm; or between 3 mm to 8 mm; orbetween 3 mm to 7 mm; or between 3 mm to 5 mm; or between 3 mm to 4 mm;or between 4 mm to 8 mm; or between 4 mm to 5 mm; or between 5 mm to 7mm; or between 5 mm to 8 mm; and

corrugation period ranging between 2 mm to 35 mm; or between 2 mm to 32mm; or between 2 mm to 30 mm; or between 2 mm to 25 mm; or between 2 mmto 20 mm; or between 2 mm to 16 mm; or between 2 mm to 10 mm; or between5 mm to 35 mm; or between 5 mm to 30 mm; or between 5 mm to 25 mm; orbetween 5 mm to 20 mm; or between 5 mm to 16 mm; or between 5 mm to 10mm; or between 15 mm to 35 mm; or between 15 mm to 30 mm; or between 15mm to 25 mm; or between 15 mm to 20 mm; or between 20 mm to 35 mm; orbetween 25 mm to 30 mm; or between 25 mm to 35 mm; or between 25 mm to30 mm.

In some embodiments, the diffusion enhancing anode such as, but notlimited to, the porous anode is made of a metal such as titanium coatedwith electrocatalysts. Examples of electrocatalysts have been describedabove and include, but not limited to, highly dispersed metals or alloysof the platinum group metals, such as platinum, palladium, ruthenium,rhodium, iridium, or their combinations such as platinum-rhodium,platinum-ruthenium, titanium mesh coated with PtIr mixed metal oxide ortitanium coated with galvanized platinum; electrocatalytic metal oxides,such as, but not limited to, IrO₂; gold, tantalum, carbon, graphite,organometallic macrocyclic compounds, and other electrocatalysts wellknown in the art. The diffusion enhancing anode such as, but not limitedto, the porous anode may be commercially available or may be fabricatedwith appropriate metals. The electrodes may be coated withelectrocatalysts using processes well known in the art. For example, themetal may be dipped in the catalytic solution for coating and may besubjected to processes such as heating, sand blasting etc. Such methodsof fabricating the anodes and coating with catalysts are well known inthe art.

In some embodiments, the electrolyte including the catholyte or thecathode electrolyte and/or the anolyte or the anode electrolyte, or thethird electrolyte disposed between AEM and CEM, in the systems andmethods provided herein include, but not limited to, saltwater or freshwater. The saltwater includes, but is not limited to, seawater, brine,and/or brackish water. In some embodiments, the cathode electrolyte inthe systems and methods provided herein include, but not limited to,seawater, freshwater, brine, brackish water, hydroxide, such as, sodiumhydroxide, or combination thereof. “Saltwater” is employed in itsconventional sense to refer to a number of different types of aqueousfluids other than fresh water, where the term “saltwater” includes, butis not limited to, brackish water, sea water and brine (including,naturally occurring subterranean brines or anthropogenic subterraneanbrines and man-made brines, e.g., geothermal plant wastewaters,desalination waste waters, etc), as well as other salines having asalinity that is greater than that of freshwater. Brine is watersaturated or nearly saturated with salt and has a salinity that is 50ppt (parts per thousand) or greater. Brackish water is water that issaltier than fresh water, but not as salty as seawater, having asalinity ranging from 0.5 to 35 ppt. Seawater is water from a sea orocean and has a salinity ranging from 35 to 50 ppt. The saltwater sourcemay be a naturally occurring source, such as a sea, ocean, lake, swamp,estuary, lagoon, etc., or a man-made source. In some embodiments, thesystems provided herein include the saltwater from terrestrial brine. Insome embodiments, the depleted saltwater withdrawn from theelectrochemical cells is replenished with salt and re-circulated back inthe electrochemical cell.

In some embodiments, the electrolyte including the cathode electrolyteand/or the anode electrolyte and/or the third electrolyte, such as,saltwater includes water containing more than 1% chloride content, suchas, NaCl; or more than 10% NaCl; or more than 20% NaCl; or more than 30%NaCl; or more than 40% NaCl; or more than 50% NaCl; or more than 60%NaCl; or more than 70% NaCl; or more than 80% NaCl; or more than 90%NaCl; or between 1-99% NaCl; or between 1-95% NaCl; or between 1-90%NaCl; or between 1-80% NaCl; or between 1-70% NaCl; or between 1-60%NaCl; or between 1-50% NaCl; or between 1-40% NaCl; or between 1-30%NaCl; or between 1-20% NaCl; or between 1-10% NaCl; or between 10-99%NaCl; or between 10-95% NaCl; or between 10-90% NaCl; or between 10-80%NaCl; or between 10-70% NaCl; or between 10-60% NaCl; or between 10-50%NaCl; or between 10-40% NaCl; or between 10-30% NaCl; or between 10-20%NaCl; or between 20-99% NaCl; or between 20-95% NaCl; or between 20-90%NaCl; or between 20-80% NaCl; or between 20-70% NaCl; or between 20-60%NaCl; or between 20-50% NaCl; or between 20-40% NaCl; or between 20-30%NaCl; or between 30-99% NaCl; or between 30-95% NaCl; or between 30-90%NaCl; or between 30-80% NaCl; or between 30-70% NaCl; or between 30-60%NaCl; or between 30-50% NaCl; or between 30-40% NaCl; or between 40-99%NaCl; or between 40-95% NaCl; or between 40-90% NaCl; or between 40-80%NaCl; or between 40-70% NaCl; or between 40-60% NaCl; or between 40-50%NaCl; or between 50-99% NaCl; or between 50-95% NaCl; or between 50-90%NaCl; or between 50-80% NaCl; or between 50-70% NaCl; or between 50-60%NaCl; or between 60-99% NaCl; or between 60-95% NaCl; or between 60-90%NaCl; or between 60-80% NaCl; or between 60-70% NaCl; or between 70-99%NaCl; or between 70-95% NaCl; or between 70-90% NaCl; or between 70-80%NaCl; or between 80-99% NaCl; or between 80-95% NaCl; or between 80-90%NaCl; or between 90-99% NaCl; or between 90-95% NaCl. In someembodiments, the above recited percentages apply to ammonium chloride,ferric chloride, sodium bromide, sodium iodide, or sodium sulfate as anelectrolyte. The percentages recited herein include wt % or wt/wt % orwt/v %. It is to be understood that all the electrochemical systemsdescribed herein that contain sodium chloride can be replaced with othersuitable electrolytes, such as, but not limited to, ammonium chloride,sodium bromide, sodium iodide, sodium sulfate, or combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the cathode electrolyte, such as, saltwater, freshwater, and/or sodium hydroxide do not include alkaline earth metal ionsor divalent cations. As used herein, the divalent cations includealkaline earth metal ions, such as but not limited to, calcium,magnesium, barium, strontium, radium, etc. In some embodiments, thecathode electrolyte, such as, saltwater, fresh water, and/or sodiumhydroxide include less than 1% w/w divalent cations. In someembodiments, the cathode electrolyte, such as, seawater, freshwater,brine, brackish water, and/or sodium hydroxide include less than 1% w/wdivalent cations. In some embodiments, the cathode electrolyte, such as,seawater, freshwater, brine, brackish water, and/or sodium hydroxideinclude divalent cations including, but not limited to, calcium,magnesium, and combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cathodeelectrolyte, such as, seawater, freshwater, brine, brackish water,and/or sodium hydroxide include less than 1% w/w divalent cationsincluding, but not limited to, calcium, magnesium, and combinationthereof.

In some embodiments, the cathode electrolyte, such as, seawater,freshwater, brine, brackish water, and/or sodium hydroxide include lessthan 1% w/w; or less than 5% w/w; or less than 10% w/w; or less than 15%w/w; or less than 20% w/w; or less than 25% w/w; or less than 30% w/w;or less than 40% w/w; or less than 50% w/w; or less than 60% w/w; orless than 70% w/w; or less than 80% w/w; or less than 90% w/w; or lessthan 95% w/w; or between 0.05-1% w/w; or between 0.5-1% w/w; or between0.5-5% w/w; or between 0.5-10% w/w; or between 0.5-20% w/w; or between0.5-30% w/w; or between 0.5-40% w/w; or between 0.5-50% w/w; or between0.5-60% w/w; or between 0.5-70% w/w; or between 0.5-80% w/w; or between0.5-90% w/w; or between 5-8% w/w; or between 5-10% w/w; or between 5-20%w/w; or between 5-30% w/w; or between 5-40% w/w; or between 5-50% w/w;or between 5-60% w/w; or between 5-70% w/w; or between 5-80% w/w; orbetween 5-90% w/w; or between 10-20% w/w; or between 10-30% w/w; orbetween 10-40% w/w; or between 10-50% w/w; or between 10-60% w/w; orbetween 10-70% w/w; or between 10-80% w/w; or between 10-90% w/w; orbetween 30-40% w/w; or between 30-50% w/w; or between 30-60% w/w; orbetween 30-70% w/w; or between 30-80% w/w; or between 30-90% w/w; orbetween 50-60% w/w; or between 50-70% w/w; or between 50-80% w/w; orbetween 50-90% w/w; or between 75-80% w/w; or between 75-90% w/w; orbetween 80-90% w/w; or between 90-95% w/w; of divalent cationsincluding, but not limited to, calcium, magnesium, and combinationthereof.

In some embodiments, the cathode electrolyte includes, but not limitedto, sodium hydroxide, sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, orcombination thereof. In some embodiments, the cathode electrolyteincludes, but not limited to, sodium or potassium hydroxide. In someembodiments, the cathode electrolyte includes, but not limited to,sodium hydroxide, divalent cations, or combination thereof. In someembodiments, the cathode electrolyte includes, but not limited to,sodium hydroxide, sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, divalentcations, or combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cathodeelectrolyte includes, but not limited to, sodium hydroxide, calciumbicarbonate, calcium carbonate, magnesium bicarbonate, magnesiumcarbonate, calcium magnesium carbonate, or combination thereof. In someembodiments, the cathode electrolyte includes, but not limited to,saltwater, sodium hydroxide, bicarbonate brine solution, or combinationthereof. In some embodiments, the cathode electrolyte includes, but notlimited to, saltwater and sodium hydroxide. In some embodiments, thecathode electrolyte includes, but not limited to, fresh water and sodiumhydroxide. In some embodiments, the cathode electrolyte includes freshwater devoid of alkalinity or divalent cations. In some embodiments, thecathode electrolyte includes, but not limited to, fresh water, sodiumhydroxide, sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, divalent cations, orcombination thereof.

In some embodiments, the anode electrolyte includes, but not limited to,fresh water and metal ions. In some embodiments, the anode electrolyteincludes, but not limited to, saltwater and metal ions. In someembodiments, the anode electrolyte includes metal ion solution.

In some embodiments, the depleted saltwater from the cell may becirculated back to the cell. In some embodiments, the cathodeelectrolyte includes 1-90%; 1-50%; or 1-40%; or 1-30%; or 1-15%; or1-20%; or 1-10%; or 5-90%; or 5-50%; or 5-40%; or 5-30%; or 5-20%; or5-10%; or 10-90%; or 10-50%; or 10-40%; or 10-30%; or 10-20%; or 15-20%;or 15-30%; or 20-30%, of the sodium hydroxide solution. In someembodiments, the anode electrolyte includes 0-5 M; or 0-4.5M; or 0-4M;or 0-3.5M; or 0-3M; or 0-2.5M; or 0-2M; or 0-1.5M; or 0-1M; or 1-5M; or1-4.5M; or 1-4M; or 1-3.5M; or 1-3M; or 1-2.5M; or 1-2M; or 1-1.5M; or2-5M; or 2-4.5M; or 2-4M; or 2-3.5M; or 2-3M; or 2-2.5M; or 3-5M; or3-4.5M; or 3-4M; or 3-3.5M; or 4-5M; or 4.5-5M metal ion solution. Insome embodiments, the anode does not form an oxygen gas. In someembodiments, the anode does not form a chlorine gas.

In some embodiments, the cathode electrolyte and the anode electrolyteare separated in part or in full by an ion exchange membrane. In someembodiments, the ion exchange membrane is an anion exchange membrane ora cation exchange membrane. In some embodiments, the cation exchangemembranes in the electrochemical cell, as disclosed herein, areconventional and are available from, for example, Asahi Kasei of Tokyo,Japan; or from Membrane International of Glen Rock, N.J., or DuPont, inthe USA. Examples of CEM include, but are not limited to, N2030WX(Dupont), F8020/F8080 (Flemion), and F6801 (Aciplex). CEMs that aredesirable in the methods and systems of the invention have minimalresistance loss, greater than 90% selectivity, and high stability inconcentrated caustic. AEMs, in the methods and systems of the inventionare exposed to concentrated metallic salt anolytes and saturated brinestream. It is desirable for the AEM to allow passage of salt ion such aschloride ion to the anolyte but reject the metallic ion species from theanolyte. In some embodiments, metallic salts may form various ionspecies (cationic, anionic, and/or neutral) including but not limitedto, MCl⁺, MCl₂ ⁻, MCl₂ ⁰, M²⁺ etc. and it is desirable for suchcomplexes to not pass through AEM or not foul the membranes. Provided inthe examples are some of the membranes that have been tested for themethods and systems of the invention that have been found to preventmetal crossover.

Accordingly, provided herein are methods comprising contacting an anodewith a metal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anode chamber; convertingthe metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation stateat the anode; contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte in acathode chamber; forming an alkali, water, or hydrogen gas at thecathode; and preventing migration of the metal ions from the anodeelectrolyte to the cathode electrolyte by using an anion exchangemembrane wherein the anion exchange membrane has an ohmic resistance ofless than 3 Ωcm² or less than 2 Ωcm² or less than 1 Ωcm². In someembodiments, the anion exchange membrane has an ohmic resistance ofbetween 1-3 Ωcm². In some embodiments, there are provided methodscomprising contacting an anode with a metal ion in an anode electrolytein an anode chamber; converting the metal ion from a lower oxidationstate to a higher oxidation state at the anode; contacting a cathodewith a cathode electrolyte in a cathode chamber; forming an alkali,water, or hydrogen gas at the cathode; and preventing migration of themetal ions from the anode electrolyte to the cathode electrolyte byusing an anion exchange membrane wherein the anion exchange membranerejects more than 80%, or more than 90%, or more than 99%, or about99.9% of all metal ions from the anode electrolyte.

There are also provided systems comprising an anode in contact with ametal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anode chamber wherein the anodeis configured to convert the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to ahigher oxidation state in the anode chamber; a cathode in contact with acathode electrolyte in a cathode chamber wherein the cathode isconfigured to form an alkali, water, or hydrogen gas in the cathodechamber; and an anion exchange membrane wherein the anion exchangemembrane has an ohmic resistance of less than 3 Ωcm² or less than 2 Ωcm²or less than 1 Ωcm². In some embodiments, the anion exchange membranehas an ohmic resistance of between 1-3 Ωcm². In some embodiments, thereare provided systems comprising contacting an anode in contact with ametal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anode chamber wherein the anodeis configured to convert the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to ahigher oxidation state in the anode chamber; a cathode in contact with acathode electrolyte in a cathode chamber wherein the cathode isconfigured to form an alkali, water, or hydrogen gas in the cathodechamber; and an anion exchange membrane wherein the anion exchangemembrane rejects more than 80%, or more than 90%, or more than 99%, orabout 99.9% of all metal ions from the anode electrolyte.

Also provided herein are methods comprising contacting an anode with ametal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anode chamber; converting themetal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation state atthe anode; contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte in a cathodechamber; forming an alkali at the cathode; separating the anodeelectrolyte from a brine compartment with an anion exchange membrane;separating the cathode electrolyte from the brine compartment by acation exchange membrane; and preventing migration of the metal ionsfrom the anode electrolyte to the brine compartment by using the anionexchange membrane that has an ohmic resistance of less than 3 Ωcm² orless than 2 Ωcm² or less than 1 Ωcm². In some embodiments, the anionexchange membrane has an ohmic resistance of between 1-3 Ωcm². In someembodiments, there are provided methods comprising contacting an anodewith a metal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anode chamber; convertingthe metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidation stateat the anode; contacting a cathode with a cathode electrolyte in acathode chamber; forming an alkali at the cathode; separating the anodeelectrolyte from a brine compartment with an anion exchange membrane;separating the cathode electrolyte from the brine compartment by acation exchange membrane; and preventing migration of the metal ionsfrom the anode electrolyte to the brine compartment by using the anionexchange membrane that rejects more than 80%, or more than 90%, or morethan 99%, or about 99.9% of all metal ions from the anode electrolyte.

There are also provided systems comprising an anode in contact with ametal ion in an anode electrolyte in an anode chamber wherein the anodeis configured to convert the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to ahigher oxidation state in the anode chamber; a cathode in contact with acathode electrolyte in a cathode chamber wherein the cathode isconfigured to form an alkali in the cathode chamber; an anion exchangemembrane separating the anode electrolyte from a brine compartment; anda cation exchange membrane separating the cathode electrolyte from thebrine compartment, wherein the anion exchange membrane has an ohmicresistance of less than 3 Ωcm² or less than 2 Ωcm² or less than 1 Ωcm².In some embodiments, the anion exchange membrane has an ohmic resistanceof between 1-3 Ωcm². In some embodiments, there are provided systemscomprising contacting an anode in contact with a metal ion in an anodeelectrolyte in an anode chamber wherein the anode is configured toconvert the metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidationstate in the anode chamber; a cathode in contact with a cathodeelectrolyte in a cathode chamber wherein the cathode is configured toform an alkali in the cathode chamber; an anion exchange membraneseparating the anode electrolyte from a brine compartment; and a cationexchange membrane separating the cathode electrolyte from the brinecompartment, wherein the anion exchange membrane rejects more than 80%,or more than 90%, or more than 99%, or about 99.9% of all metal ionsfrom the anode electrolyte.

The methods and systems described above comprising the AEM furtherinclude the treatment of the anode electrolyte comprising the metal ionin the higher oxidation state with the hydrogen gas, unsaturatedhydrocarbon, or saturated hydrocarbon, as described herein.

Examples of cationic exchange membranes include, but not limited to,cationic membrane consisting of a perfluorinated polymer containinganionic groups, for example sulphonic and/or carboxylic groups. However,it may be appreciated that in some embodiments, depending on the need torestrict or allow migration of a specific cation or an anion speciesbetween the electrolytes, a cation exchange membrane that is morerestrictive and thus allows migration of one species of cations whilerestricting the migration of another species of cations may be used as,e.g., a cation exchange membrane that allows migration of sodium ionsinto the cathode electrolyte from the anode electrolyte whilerestricting migration of other ions from the anode electrolyte into thecathode electrolyte, may be used. Similarly, in some embodiments,depending on the need to restrict or allow migration of a specific anionspecies between the electrolytes, an anion exchange membrane that ismore restrictive and thus allows migration of one species of anionswhile restricting the migration of another species of anions may be usedas, e.g., an anion exchange membrane that allows migration of chlorideions into the anode electrolyte from the cathode electrolyte whilerestricting migration of hydroxide ions from the cathode electrolyteinto the anode electrolyte, may be used. Such restrictive cation and/oranion exchange membranes are commercially available and can be selectedby one ordinarily skilled in the art.

In some embodiments, there is provided a system comprising one or moreanion exchange membrane, and cation exchange membranes located betweenthe anode and the cathode. In some embodiments, the membranes should beselected such that they can function in an acidic and/or basicelectrolytic solution as appropriate. Other desirable characteristics ofthe membranes include high ion selectivity, low ionic resistance, highburst strength, and high stability in an acidic electrolytic solution ina temperature range of 0° C. to 100° C. or higher, or a alkalinesolution in similar temperature range may be used. In some embodiments,it is desirable that the ion exchange membrane prevents the transport ofthe metal ion from the anolyte to the catholyte. In some embodiments, amembrane that is stable in the range of 0° C. to 90° C.; or 0° C. to 80°C.; or 0° C. to 70° C.; or 0° C. to 60° C.; or 0° C. to 50° C.; or 0° C.to 40° C., or 0° C. to 30° C., or 0° C. to 20° C., or 0° C. to 10° C.,or higher may be used. In some embodiments, a membrane that is stable inthe range of 0° C. to 90° C.; or 0° C. to 80° C.; or 0° C. to 70° C.; or0° C. to 60° C.; or 0° C. to 50° C.; or 0° C. to 40° C., but unstable athigher temperature, may be used. For other embodiments, it may be usefulto utilize an ion-specific ion exchange membranes that allows migrationof one type of cation but not another; or migration of one type of anionand not another, to achieve a desired product or products in anelectrolyte. In some embodiments, the membrane may be stable andfunctional for a desirable length of time in the system, e.g., severaldays, weeks or months or years at temperatures in the range of 0° C. to90° C.; or 0° C. to 80° C.; or 0° C. to 70° C.; or 0° C. to 60° C.; or0° C. to 50° C.; or 0° C. to 40° C.; or 0° C. to 30° C.; or 0° C. to 20°C.; or 0° C. to 10° C., and higher and/or lower. In some embodiments,for example, the membranes may be stable and functional for at least 1day, at least 5 days, 10 days, 15 days, 20 days, 100 days, 1000 days,5-10 years, or more in electrolyte temperatures at 100° C., 90° C., 80°C., 70° C., 60° C., 50° C., 40° C., 30° C., 20° C., 10° C., 5° C. andmore or less.

The ohmic resistance of the membranes may affect the voltage drop acrossthe anode and cathode, e.g., as the ohmic resistance of the membranesincrease, the voltage across the anode and cathode may increase, andvice versa. Membranes that can be used include, but are not limited to,membranes with relatively low ohmic resistance and relatively high ionicmobility; and membranes with relatively high hydration characteristicsthat increase with temperatures, and thus decreasing the ohmicresistance. By selecting membranes with lower ohmic resistance known inthe art, the voltage drop across the anode and the cathode at aspecified temperature can be lowered.

Scattered through membranes may be ionic channels including acid groups.These ionic channels may extend from the internal surface of the matrixto the external surface and the acid groups may readily bind water in areversible reaction as water-of-hydration. This binding of water aswater-of-hydration may follow first order reaction kinetics, such thatthe rate of reaction is proportional to temperature. Consequently,membranes can be selected to provide a relatively low ohmic and ionicresistance while providing for improved strength and resistance in thesystem for a range of operating temperatures.

In some embodiments, the carbon from the source of carbon, whencontacted with the cathode electrolyte inside the cathode chamber,reacts with the hydroxide ions and produces water and carbonate ions,depending on the pH of the cathode electrolyte. The addition of thecarbon from the source of carbon to the cathode electrolyte may lowerthe pH of the cathode electrolyte. Thus, depending on the degree ofalkalinity desired in the cathode electrolyte, the pH of the cathodeelectrolyte may be adjusted and in some embodiments is maintainedbetween 6 and 12; between 7 and 14 or greater; or between 7 and 13; orbetween 7 and 12; or between 7 and 11; or between 7 and 10; or between 7and 9; or between 7 and 8; or between 8 and 14 or greater; or between 8and 13; or between 8 and 12; or between 8 and 11; or between 8 and 10;or between 8 and 9; or between 9 and 14 or greater; or between 9 and 13;or between 9 and 12; or between 9 and 11; or between 9 and 10; orbetween 10 and 14 or greater; or between 10 and 13; or between 10 and12; or between 10 and 11; or between 11 and 14 or greater; or between 11and 13; or between 11 and 12; or between 12 and 14 or greater; orbetween 12 and 13; or between 13 and 14 or greater. In some embodiments,the pH of the cathode electrolyte may be adjusted to any value between 7and 14 or greater, a pH less than 12, a pH 7.0, 7.5, 8.0, 8.5, 9.0, 9.5,10.0, 10.5, 11.0, 11.5, 12.0, 12.5, 13.0, 13.5, 14.0, and/or greater.

Similarly, in some embodiments of the system, the pH of the anodeelectrolyte is adjusted and is maintained between 0-7; or between 0-6;or between 0-5; or between 0-4; or between 0-3; or between 0-2; orbetween 0-1. As the voltage across the anode and cathode may bedependent on several factors including the difference in pH between theanode electrolyte and the cathode electrolyte (as can be determined bythe Nernst equation well known in the art), in some embodiments, the pHof the anode electrolyte may be adjusted to a value between 0 and 7,including 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0,6.5 and 7, depending on the desired operating voltage across the anodeand cathode. Thus, in equivalent systems, where it is desired to reducethe energy used and/or the voltage across the anode and cathode, e.g.,as in the chlor-alkali process, the carbon from the source of carbon canbe added to the cathode electrolyte as disclosed herein to achieve adesired pH difference between the anode electrolyte and cathodeelectrolyte.

The system may be configured to produce any desired pH differencebetween the anode electrolyte and the cathode electrolyte by modulatingthe pH of the anode electrolyte, the pH of the cathode electrolyte, theconcentration of hydroxide in the cathode electrolyte, the withdrawaland replenishment of the anode electrolyte, the withdrawal andreplenishment of the cathode electrolyte, and/or the amount of thecarbon from the source of carbon added to the cathode electrolyte. Bymodulating the pH difference between the anode electrolyte and thecathode electrolyte, the voltage across the anode and the cathode can bemodulated. In some embodiments, the system is configured to produce a pHdifference of at least 4 pH units; at least 5 pH units; at least 6 pHunits; at least 7 pH units; at least 8 pH units; at least 9 pH units; atleast 10 pH units; at least 11 pH units; at least 12 pH units; at least13 pH units; at least 14 pH units; or between 4-12 pH units; or between4-11 pH units; or between 4-10 pH units; or between 4-9 pH units; orbetween 4-8 pH units; or between 4-7 pH units; or between 4-6 pH units;or between 4-5 pH units; or between 3-12 pH units; or between 3-11 pHunits; or between 3-10 pH units; or between 3-9 pH units; or between 3-8pH units; or between 3-7 pH units; or between 3-6 pH units; or between3-5 pH units; or between 3-4 pH units; or between 5-12 pH units; orbetween 5-11 pH units; or between 5-10 pH units; or between 5-9 pHunits; or between 5-8 pH units; or between 5-7 pH units; or between 5-6pH units; or between 6-12 pH units; or between 6-11 pH units; or between6-10 pH units; or between 6-9 pH units; or between 6-8 pH units; orbetween 6-7 pH units; or between 7-12 pH units; or between 7-11 pHunits; or between 7-10 pH units; or between 7-9 pH units; or between 7-8pH units; or between 8-12 pH units; or between 8-11 pH units; or between8-10 pH units; or between 8-9 pH units; or between 9-12 pH units; orbetween 9-11 pH units; or between 9-10 pH units; or between 10-12 pHunits; or between 10-11 pH units; or between 11-12 pH units; between theanode electrolyte and the cathode electrolyte. In some embodiments, thesystem is configured to produce a pH difference of at least 4 pH unitsbetween the anode electrolyte and the cathode electrolyte.

In some embodiments, the anode electrolyte and the cathode electrolytein the electrochemical cell, in the methods and systems provided herein,are operated at room temperature or at elevated temperatures, such as,e.g., at more than 40° C., or more than 50° C., or more than 60° C., ormore than 70° C., or more than 80° C., or between 30-70° C.

Production of Bicarbonate and/or Carbonate Products

In some embodiments, the methods and systems provided herein areconfigured to process the carbonate/bicarbonate solution obtained afterthe cathode electrolyte is contacted with the carbon from the source ofcarbon. In some embodiments, the carbonate and/or bicarbonate containingsolution is treated with divalent cations, such as but not limited to,calcium and/or magnesium to form calcium and/or magnesium carbonateand/or bicarbonate. An illustrative embodiment for such processes isprovided in FIG. 13.

As illustrated in FIG. 13, process 1300 illustrates methods and systemsto process the carbonate/bicarbonate solution obtained after the cathodeelectrolyte is contacted with the carbon from the source of carbon. Insome embodiments, the solution is subjected to the precipitation in theprecipitator 1301. In some embodiments, the solution includes sodiumhydroxide, sodium carbonate, and/or sodium bicarbonate. In someembodiments, the system is configured to treat bicarbonate and/orcarbonate ions in the cathode electrolyte with an alkaline earth metalion or divalent cation including, but not limited to, calcium,magnesium, and combination thereof. The “divalent cation” as usedherein, includes any solid or solution that contains divalent cations,such as, alkaline earth metal ions or any aqueous medium containingalkaline earth metals. The alkaline earth metals include calcium,magnesium, strontium, barium, etc. or combinations thereof. The divalentcations (e.g., alkaline earth metal cations such as Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺) maybe found in industrial wastes, seawater, brines, hard water, minerals,and many other suitable sources. The alkaline-earth-metal-containingwater includes fresh water or saltwater, depending on the methodemploying the water. In some embodiments, the water employed in theprocess includes one or more alkaline earth metals, e.g., magnesium,calcium, etc. In some embodiments, the alkaline earth metal ions arepresent in an amount of 1% to 99% by wt; or 1% to 95% by wt; or 1% to90% by wt; or 1% to 80% by wt; or 1% to 70% by wt; or 1% to 60% by wt;or 1% to 50% by wt; or 1% to 40% by wt; or 1% to 30% by wt; or 1% to 20%by wt; or 1% to 10% by wt; or 20% to 95% by wt; or 20% to 80% by wt; or20% to 50% by wt; or 50% to 95% by wt; or 50% to 80% by wt; or 50% to75% by wt; or 75% to 90% by wt; or 75% to 80% by wt; or 80% to 90% by wtof the solution containing the alkaline earth metal ions. In someembodiments, the alkaline earth metal ions are present in saltwater,such as, seawater. In some embodiments, the source of divalent cationsis hard water or naturally occurring hard brines. In some embodiments,calcium rich waters may be combined with magnesium silicate minerals,such as olivine or serpentine.

In some embodiments, gypsum (e.g. from Solvay process) provides a sourceof divalent cation such as, but not limited to, calcium ions. After theprecipitation of the calcium carbonate/bicarbonate using thecarbonate/bicarbonate solution from the cathode chamber and the calciumfrom gypsum, the supernatant containing sodium sulfate may be circulatedto the electrochemical systems described herein. The sodium sulfatesolution may be used in combination with metal sulfate such as coppersulfate such the Cu (I) ions are oxidized to Cu (II) ions in the anodechamber and are used further for the sulfonation of hydrogen gases orfor the sulfonation of unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbons. In suchembodiments, the electrochemical system is fully integrated with theprecipitation process. Such use of gypsum as a source of calcium isdescribed in U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/514,879, filed Aug. 3,2011, which is fully incorporate herein by reference in its entirety.

In some locations, industrial waste streams from various industrialprocesses provide for convenient sources of cations (as well as in somecases other materials useful in the process, e.g., metal hydroxide).Such waste streams include, but are not limited to, mining wastes;fossil fuel burning ash (e.g., fly ash, bottom ash, boiler slag); slag(e.g., iron slag, phosphorous slag); cement kiln waste (e.g., cementkiln dust); oil refinery/petrochemical refinery waste (e.g., oil fieldand methane seam brines); coal seam wastes (e.g., gas production brinesand coal seam brine); paper processing waste; water softening wastebrine (e.g., ion exchange effluent); silicon processing wastes;agricultural waste; metal finishing waste; high pH textile waste; andcaustic sludge. In some embodiments, the aqueous solution of cationsinclude calcium and/or magnesium in amounts ranging from 10-50,000 ppm;or 10-10,000 ppm; or 10-5,000 ppm; or 10-1,000 ppm; or 10-100 ppm; or50-50,000 ppm; or 50-10,000 ppm; or 50-1,000 ppm; or 50-100 ppm; or100-50,000 ppm; or 100-10,000 ppm; or 100-1,000 ppm; or 100-500 ppm; or1,000-50,000 ppm; or 1,000-10,000 ppm; or 5,000-50,000 ppm; or5,000-10,000 ppm; or 10,000-50,000 ppm.

Freshwater may be a convenient source of cations (e.g., cations ofalkaline earth metals such as Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺). Any number of suitablefreshwater sources may be used, including freshwater sources rangingfrom sources relatively free of minerals to sources relatively rich inminerals. Mineral-rich freshwater sources may be naturally occurring,including any of a number of hard water sources, lakes, or inland seas.Some mineral-rich freshwater sources such as alkaline lakes or inlandseas (e.g., Lake Van in Turkey) also provide a source of pH-modifyingagents. Mineral-rich freshwater sources may also be anthropogenic. Forexample, a mineral-poor (soft) water may be contacted with a source ofcations such as alkaline earth metal cations (e.g., Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, etc.) toproduce a mineral-rich water that is suitable for methods and systemsdescribed herein. Cations or precursors thereof (e.g., salts, minerals)may be added to freshwater (or any other type of water described herein)using any convenient protocol (e.g., addition of solids, suspensions, orsolutions). In some embodiments, divalent cations selected from Ca²⁺ andMg²⁺ are added to freshwater. In some embodiments, freshwater containingCa²⁺ is combined with magnesium silicates (e.g., olivine or serpentine),or products or processed forms thereof, yielding a solution comprisingcalcium and magnesium cations.

The precipitate obtained after the contacting of the carbon from thesource of carbon with the cathode electrolyte and the divalent cationsincludes, but is not limited to, calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate,calcium bicarbonate, magnesium bicarbonate, calcium magnesium carbonate,or combination thereof. In some embodiments, the precipitate may besubjected to one or more of steps including, but not limited to, mixing,stirring, temperature, pH, precipitation, residence time of theprecipitate, dewatering of precipitate, washing precipitate with water,ion ratio, concentration of additives, drying, milling, grinding,storing, aging, and curing, to make the carbonate composition of theinvention. In some embodiments, the precipitation conditions are suchthat the carbonate products are metastable forms, such as, but notlimited to vaterite, aragonite, amorphous calcium carbonate, orcombination thereof.

The precipitator 1301 can be a tank or a series of tanks Contactprotocols include, but are not limited to, direct contacting protocols,e.g., flowing the volume of water containing cations, e.g. alkalineearth metal ions through the volume of cathode electrolyte containingsodium hydroxide; concurrent contacting means, e.g., contact betweenunidirectionally flowing liquid phase streams; and countercurrent means,e.g., contact between oppositely flowing liquid phase streams, and thelike. Thus, contact may be accomplished through use of infusers,bubblers, fluidic Venturi reactor, sparger, gas filter, spray, tray, orpacked column reactors, and the like, as may be convenient. In someembodiments, the contact is by spray. In some embodiments, the contactis through packed column. In some embodiments, the carbon from thesource of carbon is added to the source of cations and the cathodeelectrolyte containing hydroxide. In some embodiments, the source ofcations and the cathode electrolyte containing alkali is added to thecarbon from the source of carbon. In some embodiments, both the sourceof cations and the carbon from the source of carbon are simultaneouslyadded to the cathode electrolyte containing alkali in the precipitatorfor precipitation.

In some embodiments, where the carbon from the source of carbon has beenadded to the cathode electrolyte inside the cathode chamber, thewithdrawn cathode electrolyte including hydroxide, bicarbonate and/orcarbonate is administered to the precipitator for further reaction withthe divalent cations. In some embodiments, where the carbon from thesource of carbon and the divalent cations have been added to the cathodeelectrolyte inside the cathode chamber, the withdrawn cathodeelectrolyte including sodium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, magnesiumcarbonate, calcium bicarbonate, magnesium bicarbonate, calcium magnesiumcarbonate, or combination thereof, is administered to the precipitatorfor further processing.

The precipitator 1301 containing the solution of calcium carbonate,magnesium carbonate, calcium bicarbonate, magnesium bicarbonate, calciummagnesium carbonate, or combination thereof is subjected toprecipitation conditions. At precipitation step, carbonate compounds,which may be amorphous or crystalline, are precipitated. These carbonatecompounds may form a reaction product including carbonic acid,bicarbonate, carbonate, or mixture thereof. The carbonate precipitatemay be the self-cementing composition and may be stored as is in themother liquor or may be further processed to make the cement products.Alternatively, the precipitate may be subjected to further processing togive the hydraulic cement or the supplementary cementitious materials(SCM) compositions. The self-cementing compositions, hydraulic cements,and SCM have been described in U.S. application Ser. No. 12/857,248,filed 16 Aug. 2010, which is incorporated herein by reference in itsentirety in the present disclosure.

The one or more conditions or one or more precipitation conditions ofinterest include those that change the physical environment of the waterto produce the desired precipitate product. Such one or more conditionsor precipitation conditions include, but are not limited to, one or moreof temperature, pH, precipitation, dewatering or separation of theprecipitate, drying, milling, and storage. For example, the temperatureof the water may be within a suitable range for the precipitation of thedesired composition to occur. For example, the temperature of the watermay be raised to an amount suitable for precipitation of the desiredcarbonate compound(s) to occur. In such embodiments, the temperature ofthe water may be from 5 to 70° C., such as from 20 to 50° C., andincluding from 25 to 45° C. As such, while a given set of precipitationconditions may have a temperature ranging from 0 to 100° C., thetemperature may be raised in certain embodiments to produce the desiredprecipitate. In certain embodiments, the temperature is raised usingenergy generated from low or zero carbon dioxide emission sources, e.g.,solar energy source, wind energy source, hydroelectric energy source,etc.

The residence time of the precipitate in the precipitator before theprecipitate is removed from the solution, may vary. In some embodiments,the residence time of the precipitate in the solution is more than 5seconds, or between 5 seconds-1 hour, or between 5 seconds-1 minute, orbetween 5 seconds to 20 seconds, or between 5 seconds to 30 seconds, orbetween 5 seconds to 40 seconds. Without being limited by any theory, itis contemplated that the residence time of the precipitate may affectthe size of the particle. For example, a shorter residence time may givesmaller size particles or more disperse particles whereas longerresidence time may give agglomerated or larger size particles. In someembodiments, the residence time in the process of the invention may beused to make small size as well as large size particles in a single ormultiple batches which may be separated or may remain mixed for latersteps of the process.

The nature of the precipitate may also be influenced by selection ofappropriate major ion ratios. Major ion ratios may have influence onpolymorph formation, such that the carbonate products are metastableforms, such as, but not limited to vaterite, aragonite, amorphouscalcium carbonate, or combination thereof. In some embodiments, thecarbonate products may also include calcite. Such polymorphicprecipitates are described in U.S. application Ser. No. 12/857,248,filed 16 Aug. 2010, which is incorporated herein by reference in itsentirety in the present disclosure. For example, magnesium may stabilizethe vaterite and/or amorphous calcium carbonate in the precipitate. Rateof precipitation may also influence compound polymorphic phase formationand may be controlled in a manner sufficient to produce a desiredprecipitate product. The most rapid precipitation can be achieved byseeding the solution with a desired polymorphic phase. Without seeding,rapid precipitation can be achieved by rapidly increasing the pH of thesea water. The higher the pH is, the more rapid the precipitation maybe.

In some embodiments, a set of conditions to produce the desiredprecipitate from the water include, but are not limited to, the water'stemperature and pH, and in some instances the concentrations ofadditives and ionic species in the water. Precipitation conditions mayalso include factors such as mixing rate, forms of agitation such asultrasonics, and the presence of seed crystals, catalysts, membranes, orsubstrates. In some embodiments, precipitation conditions includesupersaturated conditions, temperature, pH, and/or concentrationgradients, or cycling or changing any of these parameters. The protocolsemployed to prepare carbonate compound precipitates according to theinvention may be batch or continuous protocols. It will be appreciatedthat precipitation conditions may be different to produce a givenprecipitate in a continuous flow system compared to a batch system.

Following production of the carbonate precipitate from the water, theresultant precipitated carbonate composition may be separated from themother liquor or dewatered to produce the precipitate product, asillustrated at step 1302 of FIG. 13. Alternatively, the precipitate isleft as is in the mother liquor or mother supernate and is used as acementing composition. Separation of the precipitate can be achievedusing any convenient approach, including a mechanical approach, e.g.,where bulk excess water is drained from the precipitated, e.g., eitherby gravity alone or with the addition of vacuum, mechanical pressing, byfiltering the precipitate from the mother liquor to produce a filtrate,etc. Separation of bulk water produces a wet, dewatered precipitate. Thedewatering station may be any number of dewatering stations connected toeach other to dewater the slurry (e.g., parallel, in series, orcombination thereof).

The above protocol results in the production of slurry of theprecipitate and mother liquor. This precipitate in the mother liquorand/or in the slurry may give the self-cementing composition. In someembodiments, a portion or whole of the dewatered precipitate or theslurry is further processed to make the hydraulic cement or the SCMcompositions.

Where desired, the compositions made up of the precipitate and themother liquor may be stored for a period of time following precipitationand prior to further processing. For example, the composition may bestored for a period of time ranging from 1 to 1000 days or longer, suchas 1 to 10 days or longer, at a temperature ranging from 1 to 40° C.,such as 20 to 25° C.

The slurry components are then separated. Embodiments may includetreatment of the mother liquor, where the mother liquor may or may notbe present in the same composition as the product. The resultant motherliquor of the reaction may be disposed of using any convenient protocol.In certain embodiments, it may be sent to a tailings pond 1307 fordisposal. In certain embodiments, it may be disposed of in a naturallyoccurring body of water, e.g., ocean, sea, lake or river. In certainembodiments, the mother liquor is returned to the source of feedwaterfor the methods of invention, e.g., an ocean or sea. Alternatively, themother liquor may be further processed, e.g., subjected to desalinationprotocols, as described further in U.S. application Ser. No. 12/163,205,filed Jun. 27, 2008; the disclosure of which is herein incorporated byreference in the present disclosure.

The resultant dewatered precipitate is then dried to produce thecarbonate composition of the invention, as illustrated at step 1304 ofFIG. 13. Drying can be achieved by air drying the precipitate. Where theprecipitate is air dried, air drying may be at a temperature rangingfrom −70 to 120° C., as desired. In certain embodiments, drying isachieved by freeze-drying (i.e., lyophilization), where the precipitateis frozen, the surrounding pressure is reduced and enough heat is addedto allow the frozen water in the material to sublime directly from thefrozen precipitate phase to gas. In yet another embodiment, theprecipitate is spray dried to dry the precipitate, where the liquidcontaining the precipitate is dried by feeding it through a hot gas(such as the gaseous waste stream from the power plant), e.g., where theliquid feed is pumped through an atomizer into a main drying chamber anda hot gas is passed as a co-current or counter-current to the atomizerdirection. Depending on the particular drying protocol of the system,the drying station may include a filtration element, freeze dryingstructure, spray drying structure, etc. The drying step may dischargeair and fines 1306.

In some embodiments, the step of spray drying may include separation ofdifferent sized particles of the precipitate. Where desired, thedewatered precipitate product from 1302 may be washed before drying, asillustrated at step 1303 of FIG. 13. The precipitate may be washed withfreshwater, e.g., to remove salts (such as NaCl) from the dewateredprecipitate. Used wash water may be disposed of as convenient, e.g., bydisposing of it in a tailings pond, etc. The water used for washing maycontain metals, such as, iron, nickel, etc.

In some embodiments, the dried precipitate is refined, milled, aged,and/or cured (as shown in the refining step 1305), e.g., to provide fordesired physical characteristics, such as particle size, surface area,zeta potential, etc., or to add one or more components to theprecipitate, such as admixtures, aggregate, supplementary cementitiousmaterials, etc., to produce the carbonate composition. Refinement mayinclude a variety of different protocols. In certain embodiments, theproduct is subjected to mechanical refinement, e.g., grinding, in orderto obtain a product with desired physical properties, e.g., particlesize, etc. The dried precipitate may be milled or ground to obtain adesired particle size.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate precipitate formed by themethods and system of the invention, is in a metastable form includingbut not limited to, vaterite, aragonite, amorphous calcium carbonate, orcombination thereof. In some embodiments, the calcium carbonateprecipitate formed by the methods and system of the invention, is in ametastable form including but not limited to, vaterite, amorphouscalcium carbonate, or combination thereof. The vaterite containingcomposition of calcium carbonate, after coming into contact with waterconverts to a stable polymorph form such as aragonite, calcite, orcombination thereof with a high compressive strength.

The carbonate composition or the cementitous composition, thus formed,has elements or markers that originate from the carbon from the sourceof carbon used in the process. The carbonate composition after setting,and hardening has a compressive strength of at least 14 MPa; or at least16 MPa; or at least 18 MPa; or at least 20 MPa; or at least 25 MPa; orat least 30 MPa; or at least 35 MPa; or at least 40 MPa; or at least 45MPa; or at least 50 MPa; or at least 55 MPa; or at least 60 MPa; or atleast 65 MPa; or at least 70 MPa; or at least 75 MPa; or at least 80MPa; or at least 85 MPa; or at least 90 MPa; or at least 95 MPa; or atleast 100 MPa; or from 14-100 MPa; or from 14-80 MPa; or from 14-75 MPa;or from 14-70 MPa; or from 14-65 MPa; or from 14-60 MPa; or from 14-55MPa; or from 14-50 MPa; or from 14-45 MPa; or from 14-40 MPa; or from14-35 MPa; or from 14-30 MPa; or from 14-25 MPa; or from 14-20 MPa; orfrom 14-18 MPa; or from 14-16 MPa; or from 17-35 MPa; or from 17-30 MPa;or from 17-25 MPa; or from 17-20 MPa; or from 17-18 MPa; or from 20-100MPa; or from 20-90 MPa; or from 20-80 MPa; or from 20-75 MPa; or from20-70 MPa; or from 20-65 MPa; or from 20-60 MPa; or from 20-55 MPa; orfrom 20-50 MPa; or from 20-45 MPa; or from 20-40 MPa; or from 20-35 MPa;or from 20-30 MPa; or from 20-25 MPa; or from 30-100 MPa; or from 30-90MPa; or from 30-80 MPa; or from 30-75 MPa; or from 30-70 MPa; or from30-65 MPa; or from 30-60 MPa; or from 30-55 MPa; or from 30-50 MPa; orfrom 30-45 MPa; or from 30-40 MPa; or from 30-35 MPa; or from 40-100MPa; or from 40-90 MPa; or from 40-80 MPa; or from 40-75 MPa; or from40-70 MPa; or from 40-65 MPa; or from 40-60 MPa; or from 40-55 MPa; orfrom 40-50 MPa; or from 40-45 MPa; or from 50-100 MPa; or from 50-90MPa; or from 50-80 MPa; or from 50-75 MPa; or from 50-70 MPa; or from50-65 MPa; or from 50-60 MPa; or from 50-55 MPa; or from 60-100 MPa; orfrom 60-90 MPa; or from 60-80 MPa; or from 60-75 MPa; or from 60-70 MPa;or from 60-65 MPa; or from 70-100 MPa; or from 70-90 MPa; or from 70-80MPa; or from 70-75 MPa; or from 80-100 MPa; or from 80-90 MPa; or from80-85 MPa; or from 90-100 MPa; or from 90-95 MPa; or 14 MPa; or 16 MPa;or 18 MPa; or 20 MPa; or 25 MPa; or 30 MPa; or 35 MPa; or 40 MPa; or 45MPa. For example, in some embodiments of the foregoing aspects and theforegoing embodiments, the composition after setting, and hardening hasa compressive strength of 14 MPa to 40 MPa; or 17 MPa to 40 MPa; or 20MPa to 40 MPa; or 30 MPa to 40 MPa; or 35 MPa to 40 MPa. In someembodiments, the compressive strengths described herein are thecompressive strengths after 1 day, or 3 days, or 7 days, or 28 days.

The precipitates, comprising, e.g., calcium and magnesium carbonates andbicarbonates in some embodiments may be utilized as building materials,e.g., as cements and aggregates, as described in commonly assigned U.S.patent application Ser. No. 12/126,776, filed on 23 May 2008, hereinincorporated by reference in its entirety in the present disclosure.

The following examples are put forth so as to provide those of ordinaryskill in the art with a complete disclosure and description of how tomake and use the present invention, and are not intended to limit thescope of what the inventors regard as their invention nor are theyintended to represent that the experiments below are all or the onlyexperiments performed. Various modifications of the invention inaddition to those described herein will become apparent to those skilledin the art from the foregoing description and accompanying figures. Suchmodifications fall within the scope of the appended claims. Efforts havebeen made to ensure accuracy with respect to numbers used (e.g. amounts,temperature, etc.) but some experimental errors and deviations should beaccounted for. Unless indicated otherwise, parts are parts by weight,molecular weight is weight average molecular weight, temperature is indegrees Centigrade, and pressure is at or near atmospheric.

In the examples and elsewhere, abbreviations have the following meanings

AEM = anion exchange membrane Ag = silver Ag/AgCl = silver/silverchloride cm² = centimeter square ClEtOH = chloroethanol CV = cyclicvoltammetry DI = deionized EDC = ethylene dichloride g = gram HCl =hydrochloric acid hr = hour Hz = hertz M = molar mA = milliamps mA/cm² =milliamps/centimeter square mg = milligram min. = minute mmol =millimole mol = mole μl = microliter μm = micrometer mL = milliliterml/min = milliliter/minute mV = millivolt mV/s or mVs⁻¹ =millivolt/second NaCl = sodium chloride NaOH = sodium hydroxide nm =nanometer Ωcm² = ohms centimeter square Pd/C = palladium/carbon psi =pounds per square inch psig = pounds per square inch guage Pt = platinumPtIr = platinum iridium rpm = revolutions per minute STY = space timeyield V = voltage w/v = weight/volume w/w = weight/weight

EXAMPLES Example 1 Formation of Halohydrocarbon from UnsaturatedHydrocarbon

Formation of EDC from Ethylene Using Copper Chloride

This experiment is directed to the formation of ethylene dichloride(EDC) from ethylene using cupric chloride. The experiment was conductedin a pressure vessel. The pressure vessel contained an outer jacketcontaining the catalyst, i.e. cupric chloride solution and an inlet forbubbling ethylene gas in the cupric chloride solution. The concentrationof the reactants was, as shown in Table 1 below. The pressure vessel washeated to 160° C. and ethylene gas was passed into the vessel containing200 mL of the solution at 300 psi for between 30 min.-1 hr in theexperiments. The vessel was cooled to 4° C. before venting and opening.The product formed in the solution was extracted with ethyl acetate andwas then separated using a separatory funnel. The ethyl acetate extractcontaining the EDC was subjected to gas-chromatography (GC).

TABLE 1 Mass Chloro- Cu Selectivity: Time HCl EDC ethanol UtilizationEDC/(EDC + (hrs) CuCl₂ CuCl NaCl (M) (mg) (mg) (EDC) STY ClEtOH) % 0.5 60.5 1 0.03 3,909.26 395.13 8.77% 0.526 90.82% 0.5 4.5 0.5 2.5 0.033,686.00 325.50 11.03% 0.496 91.89%Formation of Dichloropropane from Propylene Using Copper Chloride

This experiment is directed to the formation of 1,2-dichloropropane(DCP) from propylene using cupric chloride. The experiment was conductedin a pressure vessel. The pressure vessel contained an outer jacketcontaining the catalyst, i.e. cupric chloride solution and an inlet forbubbling propylene gas in the cupric chloride solution. A 150 mLsolution of 5M CuCl₂, 0.5M CuCl, 1M NaCl, and 0.03M HCl was placed intoa glass-lined 450 mL stirred pressure vessel. After purging the closedcontainer with N₂, it was heated to 160° C. After reaching thistemperature, propylene was added to the container to raise the pressurefrom the autogenous pressure, mostly owing from water vapor, to apressure of 130 psig. After 15 minutes, more propylene was added toraise the pressure from 120 psig to 140 psig. After an additional 15minutes, the pressure was 135 psig. At this time, the reactor was cooledto 14° C., depressurized, and opened. Ethyl acetate was used to rinsethe reactor parts and then was used as the extraction solvent. Theproduct was analyzed by gas chromatography which showed 0.203 g of1,2-dichloropropane that was recovered in the ethyl acetate phase.

Example 2 Re-Circulation of Aqueous Phase from Catalytic Reactor toElectrochemical System

This example illustrates the re-circulation of the Cu(I) solutiongenerated by a catalysis reactor to the electrochemical cell containinga PtIr gauze electrode. A solution containing 4.5M Cu(II), 0.1M Cu(I),and 1.0M NaCl was charged to the Parr bomb reactor for a 60 min.reaction at 160° C. and 330 psi. The same solution was tested via anodiccyclic voltammetry (CV) before and after the catalysis run to look foreffects of organic residues such as EDC or residual extractant on anodeperformance. Each CV experiment was conducted at 70° C. with 10 mVs⁻¹scan rate for five cycles, 0.3 to 0.8V vs. saturated calomel electrode(SCE).

FIG. 14 illustrates the resulting V/I response of a PtIr gauze electrode(6 cm²) in solutions before and after catalysis (labeled pre and post,respectively). As illustrated in FIG. 14, redox potential (voltage atzero current) shifted to lower voltages post-catalysis as expected fromthe Nernst equation for an increase in Cu(I) concentration. The increasein the Cu(I) concentration was due to EDC production with Cu(I)regeneration during a catalysis reaction. The pre-catalysis CV curvereached a limiting current near 0.5 A due to mass transfer limitationsat low Cu(I) concentration. The Cu(I) generation during the catalysisrun was signified by a marked improvement in kinetic behaviorpost-catalysis, illustrated in FIG. 14 as a steeper and linear IN slopewith no limiting current reached. No negative effects of residual EDC orother organics were apparent as indicated by the typical reversible UVcurve obtained in the post-catalysis CV.

Example 3 Bubbling of Air in the Anode Compartment

This example illustrates reduction in the voltage of the cell when airis bubbled around the anode. As described herein, the circulation of theair in the anode compartment improves the mass transfer at the anodethereby reducing the voltage of the cell.

The solutions introduced into the full cell were 0.9M Cu(I), 4.5MCu(II), and 2.5M NaCl anolyte, and 10 wt % NaOH catholyte. The anionexchange membrane was FAS-PK-130. The flow rate in the anolyte was 1.7l/min and the anode to back wall spacing was 3 mm. A fishing net wasused on one side of the anode to separate the anode from the anionexchange membrane. As illustrated in FIG. 15, everytime air bubbles werepassed in the anode compartment the voltage dropped by 100-200 mV.

Example 4 Effect of the Geometry of the Anode on Cell Voltage

This example illustrates reduction in the voltage of the cell when thecorrugated anode was used in the cell vs. the flat expanded anode.

The solutions introduced into the full cell were 0.9M Cu(I), 4.5MCu(II), and 2.5M NaCl anolyte, and 10 wt % NaOH catholyte. The anionexchange membrane was FAS-130 separator and the temperature was 70° C.The flat expanded anode, illustrated as A in FIG. 16, showed a cellvoltage of 3.30V and 3.32V whereas the corrugated anode, illustrated asB in FIG. 16, showed a cell voltage of 3.05V and 2.95V. There was avoltage saving of between 250 mV to 370 mV.

Example 5 Adsorption of Organics on Adsorbent

In this experiment, the adsorption of the organics from the aqueousmetal solution using different adsorbents was tested. The adsorbentstested were: activated charcoal (Aldrich, 20-60 mesh), pelletized PMMA((poly(methyl methacrylate) average Mw ˜120,000 by GPC, Aldrich) andpelletized PBMA ((poly(isobutyl methacrylate) average Mw ˜130,000,Aldrich) (both PMMA and PBMA shown as PXMA in FIG. 17) and cross-linkedPS (Dowex Optipore® L-493, Aldrich). The PS (Dowex Optipore® L-493,Aldrich) was 20-50 mesh beads with a surface area of 1100 m²/g, averagepore diameter of 4.6 nm, and average crush strength of 500 g/bead.

Static adsorption experiments were performed in 20 mL screw cap vials.An aqueous stock solution containing 4M CuCl₂(H₂O)₂, 1M CuCl, and 2MNaCl was doped with small amounts of ethylene dichloride (EDC),chloroethanol (CE), dichloroacetaldehyde (DCA) and trichloroacetaldehyde(TCA). The organic content of the solution was analyzed by extractingthe aqueous solution with 1 mL of EtOAc and analyzing the organicsconcentration of the EtOAc extractant. A 6 mL of the stock solution wasstirred at 90° C. with different amounts of adsorbent material for aspecific time as indicated in the graph illustrated in FIG. 17. Afterfiltration, the organic content of the treated aqueous solution wasanalyzed by extraction and GCMS analysis of the organic phase. It wasobserved that with the increasing amount of the adsorbent material, anincreasing reduction of organic content was achieved. The highestreduction was observed with the crosslinked PS.

In this experiment, the regeneration capability of the adsorbent wastested by repeatedly adsorbing organics from a Cu containing solution ona given adsorbing material (Dowex Optipore® 495-L), washing the materialwith cold and hot water, drying the material and then using the washedmaterial for adsorption again. Results of the experiment are illustratedin FIG. 18. It was observed that the adsorbance performance even afterthe second regeneration was very similar to the unused material. It wasalso observed that ultraviolet (UV) measurement of the Cu concentrationafter the organics adsorbance with Dowex material did not showsignificant change. With unused material, around 10% reduction ofoverall Cu concentration was observed, and with a regenerated materialonly between 1 and 2% reduction of Cu Concentration was observed. Thesefindings point towards the advantage of the repeated use of thepolymeric adsorbing material as the polymeric material adsorbs organicsfrom a copper ion containing solution without retaining the majority ofthe Cu ions even after multiple use cycles. So the adsorbent materialcan be regenerated after its adsorption capacity is exhausted and afterregeneration the adsorbent material can be reused for the adsorption.

The Dowex Optipore® 495-L material was then evaluated in a dynamicadsorption column (illustrated in FIG. 19) to establish break throughtimes under flow conditions. A stock solution containing 511 gCuCl₂(H₂O)₂, 49 g CuCl, 117 g NaCl, and 500 g water was doped with EDC(1.8 mg/mL), CE (0.387 mg/mL), TCA (0.654 mg/mL) and DCA (0.241 mg/mL).The initial organics concentration was analyzed by extraction and GCMSanalysis. The 91-94° C. hot stock solution was pumped through a column(1.25 cm diameter, 15.2 cm length) packed with 13.5 g of Dowex Optipore®V495L. The temperature measured at the outlet was 78-81° C. The flowrate was 18 mL/min. After 60 min, the feed was switched from the stocksolution to hot DI water, starting the regeneration cycle. Samples weretaken at intervals indicated in the graph illustrated in FIG. 20. Thesamples were analyzed by extraction and GCMS analysis of the organicphase for its organics content. It was observed that CE shortly followedby DCA had the earliest break through times followed by TCA. The latestbreak through time was observed for EDC.

The regeneration profile of the organics followed the same order as theadsorption: First the adsorbed CE was washed out with hot water, closelyfollowed by DCA. The next organic compound that was washed out of theadsorbent was TCA and lastly EDC. It was observed that the adsorptionand desorption profiles and times may be influenced by parameters suchas flow rate, temperature, column dimension and others. These parameterscan be used to optimize the technique for the removal of organics fromthe exit stream before entering the electrochemical cell.

1-25. (canceled)
 26. An electrochemical system, comprising an anodechamber comprising a corrugated porous anode and an anode electrolyte,wherein the corrugated porous anode is configured to provide turbulenceto the anode electrolyte in the anode chamber.
 27. The electrochemicalsystem of claim 26, wherein the corrugated porous anode has a pore sizebetween 2×1 mm to 20×10 mm.
 28. The electrochemical system of claim 26,wherein the corrugated porous anode has a wire thickness between 0.5 mmto 5 mm.
 29. The electrochemical system of claim 26, wherein thecorrugated porous anode has corrugation amplitude between 1 mm to 8 mm.30. The electrochemical system of claim 26, wherein the corrugatedporous anode has a corrugation period between 2 mm to 35 mm.
 31. Theelectrochemical system of claim 26, wherein the corrugated porous anodeis made of titanium.
 32. The electrochemical system of claim 31, whereinthe corrugated porous anode is coated with metal or alloy of theplatinum group metal, PtIr mixed metal oxide, galvanized platinum, metaloxide, gold, tantalum, carbon, graphite, organometallic macrocycliccompound, or combinations thereof.
 33. The electrochemical system ofclaim 26, wherein the corrugated porous anode is configured to furtherprovide higher surface area to the anode; increase in active sites;decrease in voltage; decrease or elimination of resistance by the anodeelectrolyte; increase in current density; improved mass transfer at theanode; or combinations thereof.
 34. The electrochemical system of claim26, wherein the anode electrolyte is between 0-5M metal ion solution.35. An anode, comprising a corrugated porous anode wherein thecorrugated porous anode is configured to provide turbulence to an anodeelectrolyte.
 36. The anode of claim 35, wherein the corrugated porousanode is made of titanium.
 37. The anode of claim 36, wherein thecorrugated porous anode is coated with metal or alloy of the platinumgroup metal, PtIr mixed metal oxide, galvanized platinum, metal oxide,gold, tantalum, carbon, graphite, organometallic macrocyclic compound,or combinations thereof.
 38. The anode of claim 35, wherein thecorrugated porous anode has a pore size between 2×1 mm to 20×10 mm, hasa wire thickness between 0.5 mm to 5 mm, has corrugation amplitudebetween 1 mm to 8 mm, has a corrugation period between 2 mm to 35 mm, orcombinations thereof.
 39. The anode of claim 35, wherein the anodeelectrolyte is between 0-5M metal ion solution.
 40. A method, comprisingcontacting a corrugated porous anode with an anode electrolyte, whereinthe corrugated porous anode provides turbulence to the anodeelectrolyte.
 41. The method of claim 40, wherein the corrugated porousanode is made of titanium.
 42. The method of claim 40, wherein thecorrugated porous anode further provides higher surface area to theanode; increase in active sites; decrease in voltage; decrease orelimination of resistance by the anode electrolyte; increase in currentdensity; improved mass transfer at the anode; or combinations thereof.43. The method of claim 40, wherein the anode electrolyte is between0-5M metal ion solution.
 44. The method of claim 40, wherein thecorrugated porous anode has a pore size between 2×1 mm to 20×10 mm, hasa wire thickness between 0.5 mm to 5 mm, has corrugation amplitudebetween 1 mm to 8 mm, has a corrugation period between 2 mm to 35 mm, orcombinations thereof.
 45. The method of claim 40, wherein the anodeoxidizes a metal ion from a lower oxidation state to a higher oxidationstate.
 46. The electrochemical system of claim 26, wherein the anodechamber further comprises a flat porous anode.
 47. The anode of claim35, wherein the anode further comprises a flat porous anode.